SOMOS PRIMOS: Dedicated to Hispanic Heritage and Diversity Issues

Extracts from: Recession Rocks Latinos 1/24/02
Conclusions from a report released in January by the Pew Hispanic Center in Washington, D.C. stated that Latinos have been disproportionately affected by the economic downturn. Most surprisingly, second-generation Latinos face the highest jobless rates within the community. As a group, Latinos will not rebound economically until 2004 -- long after the rest of the country, predicts the study.

" Latino workers have been hit hard in the recession, with a national unemployment rate of nearly 8 percent in December or about 1.26 million people -- about 2 percentage points more than
the general population nationally. Latinos are the second-largest U.S. ethnic group.

In California, nearly 7 percent of Latinos were jobless in 2001, compared with nearly 5 percent of the population overall. The Bay Area's Latinos suffered worse: 9.3 percent, or 70,000 people, unemployed in December. The area's pummeling may be due to the high concentration of Latinos in the airline and hotel industries that have atrophied since Sept. 11. The study predicts that national Latino unemployment could peak as high as 9 percent this year.

Unexpectedly, those Latinos worst off are second-generation workers with U.S. educations and English fluency. They face the highest joblessness, with almost 10 percent unemployed in December. Many lost white-collar jobs as managers, technicians and administrators. Youth, lack of job experience and seniority may be why they fare worse, said the report.
Sent by Howard Shorr Howardshor@aol.com

Derek Parra Breaks Olympic Record

Los Angeles, Alta California - 2/20/2002 - (ACN) Derek Parra, who was born in San Bernardino's heavily Mexican West Side, has made Olympic history. He has just trashed the world record for the 1,500-meter speed skate event at the Salt Lake 2002 Winter Games, a feat that won him the first ever Gold Medal by a Mexican-American. He also became the first athlete residing in the U.S. that has won two medals in the year 2002 winter games. Parra also won a Silver Medal in 5,000 meter race nine days ago.

"Winning gold is fantastic," Parra said, "but to be the first Mexican-American, that's something beyond
myself.

Derek Parra will have a chance to add to his medals when he skates in the 10,000-meter race on Friday. You can bet your bottom dollar that La Raza will be glued to the TV set to watch the event.

Parra who is 31 years of age was considered too old and too ethnic to hope to succeed in the winter
olympic ice races, but he proved all the skeptics wrong by succeeding triumphantly in what is
traditionally a Nordic sport.

Parra is the second son in a household headed by a single father. He started skating during recreational visits to San Bernardino's Stardust Roller Rink. His grandparents are legal immigrants from Mexico.

The 1,500 world record had already been lowered in a super fast race by Jochem Uytdehaage of the
Netherlands, when Parra broke it. Parra was faster than Uytdehaage at every checkpoint during his
three-plus-lap race, clocking 1 minute, 43.95 seconds -- .62 seconds below Uytdehaage's time, and an incredible 1.25 below the record of 1:45.20 set a year ago.

Extract from article, La Raza Prevails in Nordic Sport for Olympic Gold
by Ernesto Cienfuegos, La Voz de Aztlan, 2-20-02

Jennifer Rodríguez helped the Americans take five medals in an unprecedented run. READ MORE: http://www.hispaniconline.com

Rodriguez Doubles Her Take
To Rodriguez, her ethnicity is both nonexistent and all-encompassing. She speaks very little Spanish and thinks of herself as "a gringo," yet her father is Cuban, and her childhood in southern Florida was heavily influenced by the Cuban exile community that is based there. For the last few years, she has worked with a U.S. Olympic Committee program designed to encourage more minorities to participate in winter sports, and she is hoping that her performances here -- along with those of Mexican American speed skater Derek Parra -- will spur more diverse interest in her sport.

"I hope this opens everyone's eyes that there is an opportunity there," she said. "You don't have to have been doing it since you were 4 years old." Rodriguez certainly wasn't -- in fact, before the age of 20, she had practically no exposure to speed skating, which is, in its essence, a particularly Northern European vocation. Canadians sometimes also fare well, but for years, the only Americans to penetrate the Dutch-German stranglehold on the sport.

Extract from the Washingtonpost.com - February 21, 2002 For more news, or to subscribe to the newspaper, please visit www.washingtonpost.com

AARP Reaches out to Latinos

The Association of American Retired Persons is a 35-million-member group that lobbies and provides services for people 50 and over. Realizing it has largely missed the growing number of over-50 Hispanics with broad-based recruiting, the group is in the early stages of a campaign aimed at attracting Hispanic members. Last fall, it sent 1.4 million recruitment letters to Hispanic house-holds.

"This current boomer generation is more multicultural than any generation before," said Nancy Franklin, AARP's director of membership development. "Any organization that wants to be relevant in the future" needs to adapt.
O.C. Register, pg. 32, 2-9-02

Chicanos and Latinos in Engineering and Sciences

Chicanos and Latinos in Engineering and Sciences (ChALESS) at Santa Clara University received the award for the Most Outstanding Medium Student Chapter in the Nation, at the National Technical and Career Conference in Minneapolis last week. The conference, sponsored by SHPE, brings thousands of Hispanic engineering and science students and professional members from
government and the private sector together for technical presentations, design competitions, career development and enhancement workshops.

The award, presented by the National Student Affairs Committee of the Society of Hispanic and Professional Engineers (SHPE), recognizes the top chapter with the most active participation of all its members in community service, educational outreach, and demonstrated interests in engineering and sciences. Runners up for this year's award included Stanford University, University of California at Berkeley, and Carnegie-Mellon University.

Sent by Kelly Shenefiel, 408/554-5125 news@scu.edu Santa Clara University
2/15/02, HPRW@HispanicPRWire.com

Hispanic 100, a heavily GOP executive group, starts fast on shaping a pro-business agenda.
Extract from article by Jennifer Mena,: Ethnic Influence, by the Numbers, Orange County, California:

Hispanic 100 started two months ago, with just seven members: five CEOs, an attorney and a retired vice president for State Farm.

The group tilts heavily Republican, with only a few Democratic members. Its mission: to advance a Latino-friendly, pro-business agenda, without ignoring such traditional activist rallying points as
immigration and education. The group hopes to conduct other forums and will soon consider whether to become a political action committee, which could donate money to campaigns. Members are looking to the Republicans' Lincoln Club as a model for their own development.

"This is an effort to create a structure that local, state and federal candidates can approach," said Carlos Olamendi, a founding member who runs a Capistrano Beach restaurant and an international
financing company, Cor International. "This is a group of [Latinos], most of whom have come from rags to riches.... These are people who not only know what taxes are, they know what payroll is."

Zeke Hernandez, a Democrat and president of the League of United Latin American Citizens in Santa Ana,. . . "Latinos who are Democrats will see [Hispanic 100] as a ploy to build [Republican] numbers. It's pressure on the Democrats to do their own work. They can't sit on their duffs and say, 'We have done outreach in the past' and say they are satisfied," Hernandez said.

Still, both parties could get a boost from Hispanic 100's efforts, said Jess Araujo, another Orange County Democrat and founder of Latin American Voters of America, which registers Latino voters.

"It promotes democracy. It forces the political parties to compete more aggressively for our interest and our dollars," Araujo said.
Los Angeles Times, 2-4-02

Former Orange County Supervisor Gaddi Vasquez appointment approved February 22, 2002.

Among Orange County, California activists, Latinos are proud to and sending congratulations to Gaddi Vasquez, an Orange County, California resident, in his appointment as the new Director of the Peace Corps. "I am pleased that the United States Senate has confirmed my nomination from President Bush," Vasquez, 46, said through a Peace Corps spokeswoman "I look forward to joining the Peace Corps and working with this fine organization that means so much to the world.""I am pleased that the United States Senate has confirmed my nomination from President Bush," Vasquez, 46, said through a Peace Corps spokeswoman "I look forward to joining the Peace Corps and working with this fine organization that means so much to the world.""I am pleased that the United States Senate has confirmed my nomination from President Bush," Vasquez, 46, said through a Peace Corps spokeswoman "I look forward to joining the Peace Corps and working with this fine organization that means so much to the world."
O.C. Register online, 2-26-02

Mexico's Labor Supply
"We've become addicted to the availability of very-low-wage labor from Mexico," said Raul Hinojosa-Ojeda, who directs UCLA's North American Integration and Development Center. "We have used this unwittingly as an economic strategy, but it creates an industrial base that is not very productive and is vulnerable to low-way competition around the world. In the long run, we can't survive as a sweatshop economy."

"For high-income people, the ready supply of lots of low-skilled workers is quite a boon. They staff nursing facilities, do lawn care, work in carwashes," said David Card, a labor economist at UC Berkeley.

"This group of non-citizens is a great potential asset," said Bird of the Economic Policy Institute, which contends that the nation is facing a long-term labor shortage that immigrants can help fill. "The challenge is to deliver appropriate services of education and training. In the long run, the returns to society have always been positive."

LA Times, pg A1, 2-5-02

Bert Corona Day

A movement is underway to honor the life work of Bert Corona. For more information, go to:
Segundo Barrio: http:// www.segundobarrio.com and contact Roberto Camp. Roberto Camp is a former chairperson of the Commission on Border Relations and the International Bridge Commission of the City of El Paso and is a marketing professional in Ciudad Juárez. mexicomarketing@yahoo.com Sent by Roberto Camp

Products from South of Border Form Latest Mexican Wave

Carlos Andrade has a secret formula for competing in the cut- throat United States beverage market - rice water and tamarind juice.

It might not sound all that spectacular, but Mr Andrade, like other Mexican entrepreneurs, has found a niche in the growing number of US Hispanics craving things from south of the border.

Many Mexican companies, which often complain they cannot compete with US manufacturers, believe they have an advantage when it comes to the 20.6 million Mexicans living north of the Rio Grande. Their products are reminders of home and bear names many Hispanics grew up with and trust.

"They are waiting for brands they know and love," said Marco Espinosa, North American promotion director for the Mexican Bank for Foreign Trade.

Building on its powerful brand name in Latin America, Mexico- based Grupo Bimbo, the world's third-largest bread-maker, has focused on acquiring bakeries in states with growing Hispanic populations, including Mrs Baird's Bakeries in Texas and Four-S Bakeries in California.

Mr Andrade, unable to market small bottles of fruit drinks in the crowded US market, found a niche with little competition for horchata, a rice-based drink; tamarind juice; and agua de jamaica, an infusion of hibiscus flowers.

Editor's note: Extracts from an article was published in the South China Morning Post, February 20, 2002, Downloaded from Hispaniconline, February 21

Growing Immigrant Population in USA - Census Bureau data released demographics

Data from an article by Peter Y. Hong and Patrick J. McDonnell
Los Angeles Times Staff Writers - February 7, 2002

Among the findings:

* There are 28 million foreign-born in the U.S.

* Proportion of Immigrants in U.S. Population Has Doubled Since '70

* Seventy percent of the foreign-born live in six states, the highest number (8.9 million) in California.

* A third of all foreign-born live in either greater Los Angeles or New York. *

The metropolitan areas of New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Miami and Chicago house 50% of the foreign-born population, despite comprising only 21% of the total U.S. population.

* The foreign-born are 50% more likely to live in poverty than native-born Americans.

* Immigrants less likely to own home, more likely to have fewer years of schooling than native-born.

*Immigrant families make up 21% of the US population under 25 years of age.

* One out of every 5 American babies is born to a foreign-born woman, compared to 1 in 20 in 1970.

* One of four Californians is born abroad, by far the highest proportion in the entire nation.

A 2000 survey, not the Census 2000 found:

* Vast majority of children living in an immigrant households--as many as 80%-- were born in the US.

* Almost one-third of immigrant households with three or more children were living in poverty, compared to about one-fifth of similar-sized households headed by U.S.-born parents or guardians.

* Among Latin American-born, 80% have high school educations, compared with 34% of Mexicans.

* Only 12% of Latin American immigrants have white-collar jobs.

* Two-thirds of foreign-born live in the West and South.

One constant theme in the study is the comparative lack of economic progress by immigrants from Mexico, who account for more than one-quarter of the nation's immigrant population. Mexican immigrants are more likely to lack health insurance and be mired in low-wage, blue-collar jobs.
A key reason, experts say, is that the Mexican population includes legions of illegal immigrants, recent arrivals and people lacking high school degrees. All these factors tend to deflate wage-earning ability. Sent by Zeke Hernandez

The number of Hispanic students enrolled in public schools has grown 76 percent in the last decade while the number of non-Hispanic white students rose 12 percent in the same period.
Associated Press, Feb 20, 2002 Sent by Leonard Rodriguez

A Boom In U.S. Citizenship Requests
Christian Science Monitor, 2/10/02

HOUSTON - Driven by post-9/11 uncertainty -- including the mixed feelings of vulnerability in and solidarity with their new homeland -- immigrants across the US are rushing to apply for citizenship. Applications for naturalization in October and November were up 61 percent over the same period last year, the most recent Immigration and Naturalization data show. The rate of increase rivals the wave of citizenship applications during World War II, an era reflecting some of the same tensions and emotions the nation faces now.

Applications for citizenship stood at 145,765 for October and November of 2001 - compared with the 90,741 filed during the same two months in 2000. But even more striking is just the month of November 2001, when the numbers showed a 99 percent increase over the previous November.

The last significant spike in citizenship applications -- the largest spike ever -- came in the mid-1990s. Applications during this time went up by 500 percent, topping the previous record set in 1944. Several factors drove that increase. Social service and welfare reforms -- both local and national -- left immigrants without many previously accessible benefits. Congress passed the Anti-terrorism and Illegal Immigration Reform acts in 1996, which greatly expanded the reasons for which immigrants could be deported. And at that time, the last group of immigrants granted amnesty in 1986 were finally eligible to apply for citizenship. (A legal permanent resident must wait five years before applying to become a citizen).

Sent by Howard Shorr Howardshor@aol.com

Federal Gov. Seeks To Boost Hispanic Workforce-
Uncle Sam wants you. That is if you've Hispanic. While Hispanics comprising 13 percent of the population and 11 percent of the private sector work force, they account for just 7 percent of the federal payroll. The government's top recruiters want to change that to better reflect the country's shifting demographics and to reach out to the Latino population.

-Nearly One-Third of U.S. Latinos uninsured-
A study released last week finds that 32 percent of Latinos in the United States do not have health insurance. The finding was part of a research project that concluded that fewer children are uninsured, thanks in large part to a federal insurance program.

Read more of this story at http://www.americanlatino.net

LULAC Identifies Trends

* SENATE VOTES TO RESTORE FOOD STAMPS FOR LEGAL IMMIGRANTS
On Thursday, February 7, the Senate voted to protect the economic security of millions of Hispanic families by restoring food-stamp eligibility for millions of legal immigrants. The Senate also voted
positively on the extension of jobless benefits for laid-off workers by providing an additional 13 weeks of benefits for those who need them. Since the beginning of the recession, some 1.3 million Latino workers lost their jobs. Efforts are being made to extend unemployment coverage to part-time workers, as well as to recent hires. The House will now consider the measures.
Sent by Zeke Hernandez 2/8/02

* MEXICAN IMMIGRANT SAVINGS GROW
Mexican migrant workers have begun to open bank accounts, depositing approximately $50 million in California bank accounts. The increase is attributed to a recent decision by several major U.S. banks to offer accounts to Mexican migrants holding the special ID cards called matriculas offered by Mexican consulates. Since November, migrants deposited over $20 million in L.A. County alone. Wells Fargo became the first bank in 2001 to accept the cards for the purpose of deposits,
interest collection, and checking and transfer funds. The matriculas are becoming increasingly accepted throughout the United States. In November 2001, San Francisco became the first U.S. city to officially recognize the cards as a form of valid identification.
Sent by Zeke Hernandez 2/8/02

* CENSUS INDICATES NATURALIZATIONS INCREASED
On Wednesday, the Census released a report indicating that the trend of foreign-born residents who are naturalized citizens in increasing. The 70-page report analyzed various socio-economic factors of the nation’s immigrant population, from income to education to home ownership. The data is based on a survey separate from the 2000 census. To access the report, contact the public information office at 301/457-3030. The report can be accessed at
http://www.census.gov/prod/2002pubs/p23-206.pdf

Sent by Zeke Hernandez. 2/8/02

Citizenship Applications Up Sharply

Applications for U.S. citizenship have surged in recent months, with many foreign residents rushing to become Americans because of the fallout from the Sept. 11 attacks, according to lawyers, civic groups and others who help immigrants.

The U.S. Immigration and Naturalization Service said that its most recent data show that 145,765 people applied for citizenship in October and November, up 61 percent from the same period in 2000. The agency said the increase is partly because of people scrambling to beat an upcoming fee increase, but also appears to reflect a new sense of vulnerability among foreign residents. Especially affected are Middle Eastern and South Asian immigrants who fear that immigration laws may change.

Abstract from article: Anxiety, Allegiance Spur New Requests by Mary Beth Sheridan
Washington Post Staff Writer, 1-20-02 Sent by Howard Shorr

Spanish for Gringos - Is this a trend?

Three-hour emergence "language survival" classes are being offered for owners and managers of apartments. The landlords are joining a growing numbers of employers and workers seeking to connect with their Spanish speaking customers. Teacher William Harvey who is teaching landlords says his services are so in demand that he has classes booked for the next 5 months.

Landlord Jerry L'Ecuyer said, "It's not good for business when you are behind the times. If you can't speak the language of your customers, then you are already very behind the times."

In Santa Ana, the county set, recently released census figures show that 76 percent of the population speaks Spanish at home. Anaheim and Santa Ana ranked among the top five large U.S. cities that have the highest proportion of Spanish speakers. OC Register, pg A1, 2-5-02

Dulce de Leche

M&M/MARS® spent almost two years researching and developing the M&M© dulce de leche candies. When the company decided to launch the candies, it shipped them to Los Angeles, San Antonio, San Diego, Miami and McAllen-Brownsville, Texas.

“With more than 10 million consumers accounting for nearly 30 percent of the total U.S. Hispanic population, these five cities are a natural starting point for this product,” says Roberto E. García, ethnic marketing manager at M&M/MARS®. “Best of all, demographic studies suggest that more than 40 percent of all new consumers over the next decade will be Hispanic, a group that tends to be very brand-loyal.” http://www.hispaniconline.com/buss&finn/bussres/01_nov/nov_01_marketing2.html
Extract from Hispanic Online, article Hispanics Inspire Perfume, Candy and Toys

New Book: Latino/a Thought: Politics, Culture, and Society
By Francisco H. Vazquez and Rodolfo D. Torres

Latino/a Thought brings together the most important writings that shape Latino consciousness, culture, and activism today.

This historical anthology is unique in its presentation of cross cultural writings--especially from Mexican, Puerto Rican, and Cuban writers and political documents--that shape the ideology and experience of U.S. Latinos. Students can read, first hand, the works or authors who most shaped their cultural heritage. They are guided by vivid introductions that set each article or document in its historical context and describe its relevance today. The writings touch on many themes, but are guided by this book's concern for a quest for public citizenship among all Latino populations and a better understanding of racialized populations in the US today.

No other book offers readers such a rich history of the Latino heritage--experienced in this book in the voices and political actions whose influence reached across generations. Here's what your colleagues are saying about Latino/a Thought: Politics Culture, and Society:

"A most vital and important collection of contemporary social and political theory on Latino/a life in U.S. society,
connecting it to historical political conditions in Latin America. This volume captures the essential ideas and practices of
America's largest minority population. It's a wake-up call to a society which defines itself in multicultural terms, but yet lacks
awareness and understanding of some of its most essential mulit-cultural components.";
Felix M. Padilla, author, The Struggle of Latino University Students in Search of a Liberating Education;

"The 21st century promises to be the Latino century. Vazquez and Torres have taken an excellent initiative. Latino/a Thought is an urgently needed collection, the most important and complete volume on the topic."; Ramon Grosfoguel, University of California, Berkeley

"Understanding Latinos requires understanding their history of resistance. Latino/a Thought provides an important glimpse into that history. By whetting the appetite of its readers, this book will encourage additional interest and research into the long history and contemporary manifestations of political resistance."; Teresa Cordova, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque

"An excellent compilation of the most prominent literature in the field, organized in a manner that makes the text tremendously useful to students, professors, and researchers."; Antonia Darder, Claremont Graduate University

Click here to see a full description and table of contents for Latino/aThought . To request an examination copy, simply click on the "exam copy" button on the description page for the book.

Sent by Francisco H. Vázquez, Ph. D., Director   francisco.vazquez@sonoma.edu
Hutchins Center for Interdisciplinary Learning        http://www.sonoma.edu/Hutchins/
Sonoma State University
1801 E. Cotati Avenue
Rohnert Park, CA 94928
707-664-3185   Fax 707-664-4389

Naturalization Records from Ancestry Weekly Digest, February 2, 2002
http://www.ins.gov/graphics/aboutins/history/NatzRec/NATREC.htm

Prior to September 27, 1906, there was no US Naturalization Service, thus the INS has no naturalization records dated before September 1906. To locate pre-1906 naturalization records, or any naturalization records filed with courts, start your research at the National Archives.

Read about the records of one immigrant's naturalization

Naturalization Certificate Files (C-Files)

INS naturalization certificate files, known as C-Files, include a duplicate copy of all naturalization records dated after September 26, 1906. All C-Files contain at least a copy of the Declaration of Intention (184k) to become a US Citizen (to 1952), Petition for Naturalization (279k), and Certificate of Naturalization (223k). Occasional files contain additional documents or correspondence.

C-Files include all US naturalizations from all States and Territories, and from all courts (Federal, State, and local). INS maintains an index to the C-Files, and can retrieve individual records based on name, date of birth, and place of birth. C-Files from 1906 to 1956 have been microfilmed, and are available via Freedom of Information/Privacy Act request to INS Headquarters in Washington, D.C. For naturalization records after 1956, Freedom of Information requests should be sent to the appropriate INS District Office.

An index to naturalizations of soldiers during World War I may be found at the National Archives.
Last modified 11/13/2001 Sent by Johanna de Soto

The Political Graveyard - Hispanic politicians http://politicalgraveyard.com/group/hispanic.html

President Bush Names 17 Outstanding Hispanic Americans to Commission on
Educational Excellence for Hispanic American.

The Commission will report and advise on strategies for improving the educational achievement of Hispanic Americans. The White House Office of the Press Secretary announced yesterday that President Bush intends to appoint 17 individuals to serve on the President's Commission on Educational Excellence for Hispanic Americans.

President Bush authorized the commission when he signed Executive Order 13230 on Oct. 12, 2001, and charged it with creating a multi-year plan to close the educational achievement gap between Hispanic American students and their peers. The commission members will:
(1) advise U.S. Secretary of Education Rod Paige on the progress of Hispanic Americans in closing the academic achievement gap and meeting the promise of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001;
(2) monitor and measure the performance of federal agencies in creating federal initiatives within the Hispanic community and hold them responsible for improving the participation of Hispanic Americans in federal education programs;
(3) identify successful methods of expanding parental, state and local government, private sector, and community involvement in improving education; and
(4) recommend ways the federal government can assist Hispanic parents to successfully prepare their children to graduate from high school and pursue postsecondary education opportunities.

The appointees named yesterday include: Frank Hanna of Georgia, who upon confirmation will serve as co-chair, Patricia Janette Mazzuca of Pennsylvania who upon confirmation will serve as co-chair.

Also Micaela Alvarez of Texas, Christopher Jeffrey Barbic of Texas, Jose Guadalupe Conchola of Arizona, Jaime Alfonso Escalante of California, Charles Patrick Garcia of Florida, Norma Sanchez Garza of Texas, Alexander Gonzalez of California, Miguel Angel Hernandez Jr. of Texas, Jose Eugenio Hoyos of Virginia, Francisco Jose Paret of Puerto Rico, Altagracia Ramos of Ohio, Enedelia Schofield of Oregon, Ofelia Saenz Vanden Bosch of Texas, Rene Vasquez of Puerto Rico, and Octavio Jesus Visiedo of Florida.

In addition to the up-to-21 members appointed by President Bush, Secretary Paige will serve as an ex-officio member of the commission as will Hector Barreto, administrator of the Small Business Administration; Paul O'Neill, secretary of the treasury; and Mel Martinez, secretary of Housing and Urban Development.

"President Bush has selected an outstanding group of men and women to guide our efforts to close the inexcusable achievement gap between Hispanic American students and their peers," Paige said. "I look forward to working with them to help Hispanic students across the country reach high standards of achievement, regardless of the language or other barriers to academic success that they may bring to the classroom. Every child in this country can succeed and with the assistance and advice of this commission, I look forward to improving the academic performance and attainment of all of our Hispanic students."

The individuals selected by President Bush to advise him and Secretary Paige represent a variety of backgrounds including education, business and the community service. They will work together to deliver interim and final reports to the president. Their final report will be due not later than March 31, 2003, shortly after which the commission will terminate.

Sent by Zeke Hernandez

Arlington National Cemetery: http://www.arlingtoncemetery.com/searchhb.htm
Here you will be able to search this site, search the Internet, register in order to be informed when this page changes, or recommend this site to a friend.
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Search for Obituaries from Thousands of Publications
Electric Library Newspaper Search Link http://www.geocities.com/~cribbswh/obit/
Sent by Johanna de Soto

http://www.nara.gov/genealogy/immigration/mexican.html

The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is currently processing microfilmed immigration records of persons crossing the U.S.-Mexican land border ca. 1903-ca. 1955. This article (1) gives background information about the records; (2) describes the government forms used to record information about persons crossing the U.S.-Mexican border; and (3) describes available NARA microfilm publications containing these records. This web page is adapted from Claire Prechtel-Kluskens, "Mexican Border Crossing Records (3 parts)," National Genealogical Society Newsletter, Vol. 25, Nos. 3-5 (May-Oct. 1999): 156-157, 159, 182-183, 287-281.
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Invitation to Juana Briones 200th Birthday Celebration, March 12

Invitation: Come back in time and meet "special friends" of the remarkable Juana Briones on the 200th anniversary of her birth. Enjoy informal conversation with her knowledgeable admirers while sipping Briones' own Yerba Buena healing tea at the Palo Alto Women's Club, 475 Homer Avenue on Tuesday, March 12th at 7:30 p.m. Open to the public. No charge.

Juana Briones was an extraordinary Hispanic woman. The daughter of a DeAnza expedition member, Briones grew up in the Presidio where she learned herbal healing skills. In 1836 this exceptional woman secured a separation from her husband because he did not provide for his family and courageously established a small farm in the area now known as North Beach where she raised produce to support her eight children. In 1844, although women generally did not buy property, she purchased the 4,400-acre Rancho La Purisima Concepcion, an area approximating that of the town of Los Altos Hills. Briones' business acumen and perseverance turned her into a true rarity, a ranchera who held on to her property after Mexican California was joined to the United States.

For more information check out www.brioneshouse.org or contact the Juana Briones Heritage Foundation, 650-327-4977 or jfmcd@aol.com Source: Gail Woolley gailwool@pacbell.net
Sent by Lorri Ruiz Frain

Angelina E. Marquez Olivera, the last heir of four children born to the original Spanish Racho Boca de Santa Ana land grant, passed away February 21, 2002 in Santa Monica. Angelina was born October 1st, 1916 and was married to Vincent L. Olivera, Sr.
L.A. Times, B17, 2-24-02 Sent by Robert Smith, Regriffith6828@aol.com

Tet Celebrated with a Latin touch
San Jose's annual Tet Festival, the traditional Vietnamese New Year's celebration, kicked off Tuesday with an unlikely motto: "Si, se puede!" For the first time in two decades, the city's large Vietnamese community brought in the New Year with Latino entertainers and many of the cultural trappings usually reserved for Cinco de Mayo celebrations. It is an unprecedented joining of hands between communities that are worlds apart in culture and language but share neighborhoods and business districts throughout San Jose.

To commemorate the year of the horse, a singer from the Mexican state of Jalisco will ride in on a horse to wish everyone, in Spanish and English, a prosperous New Year.

"What we're doing is historical," said Alfredo Benavides, a former school board member who is helping coordinate the Latino entertainment at the festival. "Other cultures have taken hundreds of years to learn to work together, and we're doing it in 25 years."

Overcoming cultural boundaries can be tough said Usha Welaratna, a cultural anthropologist. "There has to be a certain amount of trust before people can begin to feel comfortable with each."
San Jose Vietnamese to ring in new year with Latino flair.

The weekend celebrations were expected to draw 45,000 to 50,000 people and will include a soccer tournament for high school athletes, with teams representing Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, China and Mexico. ``I hope next year we can do the same thing because we are all part of the same community,'' said Hung Pham, president of the Vietnamese-American Community of Northern California.

Extract article by Jessie Mangaliman, San Jose Mercury News, 2-11-02 Sent by Howard Shorr

24-hour Vietnamese TV channel
Garden Grove, California is now home to the Saigon Broadcasting Network, the first 24-hour Vietnamese television channel in the United States. The network is a joint venture between Garden Grove-based Asia Entertainment, Inc. and International Channel Networks in Centennial, Colorado.

"Even though they are assimilating, they feel strongly about maintaining contacts with their country and heritage," said Jim Honiotes, ICN vice-president of marketing.

International Channel Networks offers 10 other 24-hour channels for Arabic, Filipino, Italian, Japanese and South-Asian viewers. ICN also owns Canales ñ a Spanish-language digital package that includes Discovery en Español, CNN en Español and CineLatino. O.C. Register, 1-20-02

Lost Island Found
A scientist has discovered a tiny island submerged off the California coast more than 16,5000 years after it slipped from view during the waning years of the last ice age. The low-slung island, little more than a mile in length, lies under 400 feet of water about a dozen miles from shore.
OC Register, 1-21-02

Wall Carving
The historical and religious significance of a tiny, ancient wall carving that may be bulldozed for 2,500 homes has prompted growing debate between local American Indian groups and the Irvine Co. The carving is little more than a doodle, according to archeologists who have seen it - a wavy line about 4 inches long with a circle at one end. It was cut into the wall of a shallow cave by local Indians almost 2,000 years ago on Irvine Co. near the Turtle Rock community.

The hollow with the carving is one of nine containing Indian artifacts that dot 1,600 acres of rugged land in Irvine. Seven will be preserved on roughly 1,000 acres of open land between the San Joaquin Hills toll road and Shady Canyon Road. L.A. Times, 1-3-02

Gaspar de Portola, First Governor of California http://portola-assoc.org/english/ingles2.htm

By George P. Hammond, Director Emeritus. The Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley. The peninsula of Baja California is a mountainous land –rocky, sterile, rainless- which extends for about a thousand miles from Cape San Lucas to the 32^nd parallel, the boundary with the United States. It was inhabited by various Indian tribes when the Spaniards under Hernán Cortes and his successors first landed on its shores in the 1530s, people who had adapted themselves to their impoverished environment. Very early in its history, Baja California was rumored to be rich in pearls, and for more than two centuries, numerous entrepreneurs made repeated attempts to harvest the pearls, by the use of Indian divers, but never with much success. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Historical Society of Pomona Valley: http://www.osb.net/Pomona/default.htm
Sent by Johanna de Soto

California Rancho Maps: http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/EART/digital/rancho/ Copies of original documents. The documents can be enlarged for better study. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Step into California History - $5.4 Million Renovation

Extract of article by Laura Mecov in the Sacramento Bee, Los Angeles Bureau, 2-11-02

Plans are for the Pio Pico Adobe in Whittier to be open to the public by the end of the year. Craftsmen are putting the finishing touches on a $2.1 million renovation of the 150-year-old home, and workers will soon begin a $3.3 million landscaping project to re-create the fields and orchards of Pico's "El Ranchito," or little ranch.

"This is a home of great importance to the history of California and to the Hispanic community of California," said Rusty Areias, who as state parks director oversaw the restoration. "This home tells the story of California's earliest beginnings, when this state was governed by Mexico."

It also brings recognition to Pico, a powerful figure who state historian James Newland said is often treated as a footnote in history. Born at the San Gabriel Mission in 1801, Pico rose to be one of California's most influential and wealthiest men in the 19th century, but he ended his life broke and dependent on friends and family.

Newland said Latinos and African Americans both claim Pico as a hero because he had Mexican and African American ancestors. Pico's critics, however, claim he helped destroy the state's missions, freely gave land grants to his friends, fathered three children out of wedlock and became so litigious that he was a party to some 150 lawsuits.

Pico served two terms as California's governor, first in 1832 after participating in a successful revolt against the previous governor. He relinquished the post after 20 days, when the next governor arrived from Mexico. In 1845, Pico fought for control of California and was named governor again. His term ended with the American occupation of California in July 1846.

Amid the political turmoil, Newland said Pico amassed one of California's largest fortunes. Along with his brother, Andres, he held title to 532,000 acres of land by 1855.

1849, The Pico house in Whittier was built.
1867, A flood destroyed much of the usable land.
Pico involved with 150 lawsuits over water rights, property deals and other matters.
1885, Pico's son Ranulfo shot to death. Pico loses his home through fraud due to the fact that Pico neither reads nor speaks Spanish.
1894, Pio Pico dies in the home of his family.
1900s, Harriet Russell Strong launched a campaign and organized the Governor Pico Mansion Society to save the Pico house.
1917, The Society gives the property to the state.
1927, The Parks department is created.
1987 and 1994 earthquakes cause serious damage to the adobe.
Sent by George A. Tejadilla gteja@sfc.dol-esa.gov

California Counties: The birth of each county and significant boundary changes.
http://www.csac.counties.org/counties_close_up/county_history/county_creation_main.html
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Local Catholic History & Genealogy: California, Hawaii, Nevada, & Utah

http://home.att.net/~Local_Catholic/CatholicUS-SanLosCA-HI-UT-NV.htm
The geographic areas of California, Hawaii, Nevada, and Utah are in the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical provinces of San Fransisco and Los Angeles.

The Archdiocese of Los Angeles includes the Dioceses of Fresno, Monterey, Orange, San Bernardino and San Diego in California.
The Archdiocese of San Francisco includes Dioceses of Oakland, Sacramento, San Jose, Santa Rosa, and Stockton, in California and
Diocese of Honolulu in Hawaii,
Diocese of Reno and Diocese of Las Vegas in Nevada,
Diocese of Salt Lake City in Utah,
and the geographic areas of the Equatorial Islands of Christmas, Washington, Palmyra and Fanning. Sent by Johanna de Soto

"My Story is California's Story"
At present the California Council for the Humanities is planning to elicit, through a variety of programs, personal stories form Californians that, once collected and woven together, will tell the larger story of California itself. Just how these stories are to be collected, and in what forums t hey might be presented, will be determined later this year. "There are great stories out there, and they deserve to be gathered, and they deserve to be told," said Jim Quay, executive director for the California Council for the Humanities.
Sent by Mary Lou Montagna, LA Times, OC edition, pg B1, 2-3-01

Statewide Mobilization for the Appointment of a Latina/o UC Chancellor
and Regent

(Riverside, CA) - On Saturday, January 26, 2002, some one-hundred seventy persons from different parts of the state representing various organizations and communities met at Zacatecas Café in Riverside, California to launch a statewide mobilization to secure the appointment of a Latino/a UC Chancellor for the University of California, Riverside (UCR) and a regent to the UC Board of Regents from San Bernardino and Riverside counties.

Dr. Armando Navarro, NAHR Coordinator, presented strategic steps required to initiate the statewide mobilization. In prefacing his recommendations, Navarro said, “the time is propitious for a statewide mobilization for both a Latino chancellor at UCR and Latino regent due to the fact that within the UC ten campus there is not one Latino chancellor even though state-wide the Latino population is approaching 35 percent of the state’s population and within the next ten years Latinos will constitute the majority population of San Bernardino and Riverside counties.”
Sent by Kirk Whisler KWhisler@pacbell.net

San Francisco Museum: http://www.sfmuseum.org/perished/index.html

Persons Who Died as a Result of the Great Earthquake & Fire in San Francisco on April 18, 1906

This is a roster of names compiled from newspapers of those persons who died as a direct result of injuries received either at the time of the earthquake and fire, or during the latter half of April 1906.

Compiled by Gladys Hansen, this list will be of particular assistance to history buffs and family geneaologists who are seeking lost relatives last heard from in San Francisco on April 18, 1906. The names and addresses have been verified, as far as possible, by checking each name in the 1905 San Francisco City Directory. The column of “Variant Spellings” is an assumption that names similarly spelled by hard- pressed newspaper staffs are the same person. Sent by Johanna de Soto

California Obituary Links, http://www.obitlinkspage.com/obit/ca.htm
Links throughout the state by county resources, marriages and births. Sent by Johanna de Soto

California Genealogy Databases: Search over 1,498,456,973 Names
Some of these sites are membership with Ancestry.com, but not all.
http://www.allvitalrecords.com/index.asp?state=CA Sent by Johanna de Soto

Santa Clara County Recorder's Office: http://www.clerkrecordersearch.org/
Public Access, official records, Death and Marriage Records Sent by Johanna de Soto

Harry W. Crosby, Historian, Author, Lecturer

Harry W. Crosby, An autobiography
I was born in Seattle, Washington, in 1926, but my parents moved to La Jolla in 1935 and I entered La Jolla Elementary that fall as a fourth-grader in the class of Mrs. Catherine Brown. I graduated to La Jolla Junior-Senior High School in 1938, spent the usual six years there, and graduated in June 1944 when there was-as it turned out-a little more than a year left in World War II. I enlisted in the U. S. Navy while still in high school and the Navy sent me to Occidental College in Los Angeles as a pre-medical student in the V-12 (a Navy officer-candidate program). For five semesters (with no time out between) I was exposed to a curriculum long on math and science. When the war ended and the Navy program was terminated, I stayed on at Occidental and completed a double major, pre-med, and psychology.

By mid-1947, I knew that I did not have a medical calling. That summer, I was accepted to U.S.C. med school-got the news while working at a salmon cannery in Alaska. I did little soul searching before declining the offer. It wasn't the course work so much-I was pretty good at that sort of thing, but somehow I just couldn't imagine such long preparation followed by life among sick folk. After rattling around inconclusively for a year or two, I married my college sweetheart and drifted into school teaching because it was there and I had the credentials-in science. Thus began my twelve years as a teacher of secondary-level science, mostly chemistry - a real challenge in which I enjoyed the experience of trying to connect me and my subject with students (and I've enjoyed seeing and hearing from some of them ever since). But twelve years was enough. I knew that it had been worthwhile work, but not really the work of my choice. Meanwhile I had cultivated photography and done a lot of dilettante stuff with it in México, so I decided to be a photographer-just like that! In an embarrassingly short time, I was making more than I ever had as a teacher. (One of my early photo assignments came from a magazine that hired me to photograph Tijuana for a special issue entirely devoted to that topic. I spent two weeks below the border and took about 750 pictures. My ex-student, Paul Ganster, in the fall of 2000 helped to create a show in Tijuana of 100 of those photos, and he then ram-rodded the publication by San Diego State University Press of TIJUANA 1964, a handsome coffee table book featuring 43 of those pictures. (Paul is the founder/director of the Institute for Regional Studies, SDSU's border studies program.)

In 1967, I was hired as a photographer to illustrate The Call to California, a book desired by the Commission of the Californias to commemorate California's bicentennial. I was given the task of following the route of the Portolá/Serra expedition of 1769 to make photos to illustrate a text derived from diaries of the trekkers. I rode 600 miles in Baja California -on muleback and on trails far from the then-wheeltrack road. Some of what I encountered resonated with earlier teaching experiences. My first job was at a southeast San Diego junior high where I became aware that Mexican-American students, even those whose families had been here for close to 200 years, had little sense of their people's role in California history. I also found that the school system was doing very little to remedy that. Now, in Baja California, I met dozens of isolated ranch families and became interested in their origin. My later studies [for Last of the Californios, Copley Books, 1981] proved them to be descended primarily from 18th century soldiers and mission servants and to be members of families that long ago provided colonists for Alta California. Along the way, I also encountered much physical evidence of the Spanish past. As I wrote up these experiences and the research that resulted in The King's Highway in Baja California, I was frustrated by what seemed to be inadequate secondary sources. I began to collect the bits and pieces of published historical research to aid in drawing together a better picture of early Spanish times. Avocation turned to monomania. I ran out of published sources and turned to document research. That finally opened the door and I went in, going to the Bancroft Library at Berkeley and archives in La Paz, Baja California Sur, Mexico, D. F., and Spain. And then to Culiacán, Guadalajara, Salt Lake City, Tucson, Pasadena, etc., and back to most of the foregoing one or more times. And, bit by bit, I spent three years on the ground going over the peninsula's historic sites.

In 1986, I began to work on a scholarly study of an early California soldier but, after three years, I found myself in a quandary. Xavier Aguilar [1743-1821] was reared in peninsular California in a socio-economic environment that no present-day audience would know. A well-informed reader's background in Alta California affairs would not provide him a clue to California's preceding Jesuit years. Existing secondary sources were and are relatively superficial or limited in scope. Studies of California before 1769-before the coming of Governor Gaspar de Portolá and Fray Junípero Serra-are few. The good works address limited topics; most simply introduce, translate, and edit 18th c. documents. Those of a more general nature suffer either from age and limited sources or from the parochial, religious-order points of view of their authors. The extent of the resulting vacuum is difficult to exaggerate. Antigua California began as my attempt to write the first unit of Aguilar's life, to introduce him as a product of the only world he had known. Eventually, I got frustrated as I realized that almost everything-social, political, economic, technical, even religious-cried out to be explained. My introduction grew to unworkable dimensions.

By that time I had reviewed the printed works, the documents, and their sources. I saw the opportunity to do a more basic and, perhaps, more valuable study than that which I had begun. The idea for Antigua California was born. I set out to create a rounded picture of the times, to use and cite the diverse and often obscure sources that I was uncovering. I looked for quotations that caught bits of the flavor of the times and the personality of some of the people. To balance out the predominantly religious bias of most previous writings, I gathered data on the adventures and affairs of ordinary Hispanic folk. And to the extent that documentation-and my limitations-permitted, I collected and interpreted material for a fact-based picture of the lives of the peninsula's mission Indians. In 1994, Antigua California was published to my entire satisfaction by University of New Mexico Press (Reprinted in 2000).

In October 2001 my first work of fiction will appear, Portrait of Paloma, a romantic novel the inspiration for which came to me quite literally because of and during a harrowing night of severe dehydration resulting from carelessness with my water supply during an exhausting day of desert fieldwork. I cannot recommend carelessness or dehydration, but for me the results have been a revelation and a redirection. Paloma liberated me from the declarative sentence and the reportorial voice. Bringing her story to life brought me to a personal medium in which for the first time in a long life, I could express my point of view, my opinions, my emotions. I hope Portrait of Paloma will reach many of those who knew me as I was - and, of course, that it will find favor with a broader audience looking for an intriguing story about worthwhile people. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Museum honors Hispanics, byline Dwight Chapin

The San Francisco-based Hispanic Heritage Baseball Museum will induct its first class Saturday night, February 23 at a dinner and dance at the Grand Hyatt Hotel on Union Square. The initial hall of fame class will include ex-Giants Orlando Cepeda and Tito Fuentes, former Chicago White Sox outfielder Minnie Minoso and baseball legend Ted Williams, whose mother, May Hernandez, was born in Mexico.

Williams, who is seriously ill, is not expected to attend, but friend and baseball historian Bill Nowlins is taking a flight from Florida to receive the award on Williams' behalf.

The San Francisco Chronicle, Sports Section, Pg. C7, 2-20-02 Sent by Leonard Rodriguez

Cowboy Poetry

The 18th annual National Cowboy Poetry Gathering was held in Hill City, South Dakota in February. There are more than 250 cowboy poetry gatherings around the country. The poetry that is written is written by cowboys and cowgirls for one another, providing intimate snapshots of uncomplicated, hard lives and the unpretentious relationships than have with the land, the animals and each other.

Waddie Mitchell helped start the first gathering in 1985. Mitchell operated a cattle ranch outside of Elko and heard his cowhands reciting poems, old and new. There's an audience for this, he thought, among all the cowboys around these parts.

Cowboy poetry dates to the early 1800s, fashioned by men and boys on the trails. By the late 1800s, some poems were printed in cow town newspapers. In the early 1900s, the first anthologies were printed in book form. Cowboy novelty songs were performed on stages by the 1930s, by yodeling cowboys accompanied by harmonicas and accordions.

Waddle says, "It's Americana. We're celebrating the cowboy's philosophy, reflecting on what's really important: family, friends, the land and reestablishing links to our traditions." New poems are replacing bravado and slapstick humor with introspection and vulnerability said John Dofflemyer. a publisher of Cowboy poetry. Modern cowboy poetry embraces contemporary issues, but largely followed the traditional template of a cowboy poem - long-metered, clip-clop couplets.

Extract from an article by Tom Gorman, pg. A12, 2-2-02

Ted Otero Collection of Historical Documents, 1772-1867
http://elibrary.unm.edu/oanm/NmAr/nmar%231964-001/nmar%231964-001_m7.html

Rules and regulations for setting up the presidios in Nueva Espana. Descriptions of the contents of each of the 150 boxes are explicit. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Desert Museum: http://www.azstarnet.com/desertmuseum/
Colorful, photos, maps, attractive to share with young people. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Scholes Spanish Documents Collection: http://www.unm.edu/~nmhr/finding.htm

Documents from Archivo General de Indias, Seville and
Archivo General de la Nación, Mexico
available for study at the Center for Southwest Research, Zimmerman Library,
University of New Mexico

Carlos Herrera , Project Editor Javier Marion, Assistant

The New Mexico Historical Review is currently working on a finding aid for the Scholes Spanish Documents Archive in the Special Collections at Zimmerman Library at the University of New Mexico. The finding guide project has been underway for several years, first under the direction of Dr. Felicia Guerra and now under Carlos R. Herrera and Javier Marion. New Mexico Historical Review Editor Robert Himmerich y Valencia serves as advisor to the project.

The guide is organized in the same manner as the Archivo General de las Indias, its several subsidiary subgroups AGI-Patronato or AGI-Audiencia de México. The final index will be divided according to these subgroups. Descriptions will be in Spanish since they relate to the Spanish period in the history of the Southwest and because the documents themselves are written in that language. Sent by Johanna de Soto

History of the Los Cerrillos Mining Area: http://www.nazor.net/cerrillos/mines/real10.htm
by Homer E. Milford

AREA LAND GRANTS AND POST 1700 RESIDENTS: This material was originally published by the New Mexico Abandoned Mine Land Bureau Reports 1994 - 2 and 1996 - 1

Formal land grants may not have been given before the 1680 revolution, and if any were issued, they were lost. Only land grants issued following the reconquest of New Mexico in 1692-3 are known. Spanish law considered abandoned land grants invalid and thus all Carvajal or Marquéz pre-revolt Los Cerrillos land grants became invalid when they did not return to New Mexico.

The 1692 forged land grant to Alfonso Rael de Aguilar mentions prior settlement of Los Cerrillos but did not claim the area on the basis of his wife's Carvajal-Marquéz family pre-1680 settlement there. A claim (lawsuit), however was made to part of the Cerrillos area in the 20th Century partially based on Alonzo Catiti Marquéz's pre-1680 family ownership of the area by Santo Domingo Pueblo. The so called confirmation of Spanish and Mexican Land Grants in New Mexico were in reality the creation of new land grants from the United States Government. Many of the rules of Spanish and Mexican land grants were ignored in this process. Though Twitchell's (1914, vol. 1) number 14 discusses the 1692 Los Cerrillos Land Grant in some detail, it is misleading and in error in many respects. It is discussed as a separate note (note 11) to clarify its content. The so called 1692 land grant was admitted in 1750 to be a copy made from memory, but the evidence indicates it was a forgery.
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Online Articles from the New Mexico Genealogist: http://www.nmgs.org/znmgs.htm

Articles are chosen from previous issues of the New Mexico Genealogist and added here as often as possible. Bookmark this page and check back for more soon. Wonderful collection of vital family history information, birth, marriage, and death, from county, land, probate, cemetery, guardianships, railroads, poll taxes, Spanish enlistment, and much more. Sent by Johanna de Soto

National Archives and Records Administration Center for Electronic Records
Listed by home town: http://www.nara.gov/nara/electronic/nmhrviet.html
New Mexico State List ' Sorted Alphabetically by last Name: http://www.nara.gov/nara/electronic/nmalviet.html Sent by Johanna de Soto

The Museum of Spanish Colonial Art: http://www.spanishcolonial.org/

The Spanish Colonial Arts Society, a not-for-profit organization, supports traditional Hispanic artists through the annual Traditional Spanish Market in July and the Winter Spanish Market in December, these two major exhibitions give the public a great opportunity to meet the best Hispanic artists working in the region today. More than 150 artists of Spanish descent from New Mexico will exhibit and sell their works at the Winter Spanish Market. All of the artists' handmade objects are screened to ensure both quality and authenticity. There will be several categories of Spanish colonial art on display at this year's Winter Spanish Market: Sent by Johanna de Soto

Book: The Spanish Years, 1767-1821by Kieran McCarty:
http://www.library.arizona.edu/desertdoc/welcome.html
Included on this site is the Table of Contents and the complete Index. Sent by Johanna de Soto

The Colonias of Doña Ana County, New Mexico
by Greg Bloom, FNS Editor

In Mexico, the word "colonia" denotes a community or neighborhood. In the US, "colonia" is the term used for an infrastructure-deficient neighborhood inhabited mainly by Spanish speakers, mostly from Mexico, and located in one of the four US states that border Mexico. In the US, colonias are communities that lack some or all of the following: water and sewer systems, gas lines, paved roads and safe housing.

Doña Ana County, New Mexico, a poor county in one of the nation's poorest states, has 37 of the state's 141 colonias, according to profiles of Arizona and New Mexico colonias done by HUD colonia
specialists and University of Arizona and New Mexico State University graduate students in the year 2000. The students' report also notes that the 1990 US Census found 70,280 people living in New Mexico colonias, more than half of them, 40,531, in Doña Ana County.

Problems facing colonias

While 92% of New Mexico's colonias have drinking-water systems, according to the report, the systems tend to be old and in need of repair and/or upgrade. The systems also lack sufficient pressure for fire-fighting purposes.

Wastewater treatment is a serious problem in New Mexico's colonias. The students' report states that only 15 of New Mexico's 141 colonias are connected to a wastewater treatment or sewer system. Most of the unconnected systems are in violation of state and federal laws and regulations and make use of septic tanks or cesspools that are a threat or pose a future threat to area aquifers.

While the students found that all colonias have electricity, most do not have connections to natural gas systems. Instead, poorly insulated homes are heated with propane which costs roughly four times as much as natural gas, according to Ray Padilla of the Colonias Development Council which is headquartered in Las Cruces, in Doña Ana County. Another problem with propane gas is that trucks do not come on a daily basis to refill empty tanks so colonia residents sometimes spend a few
days and nights with no heat and no way of warming food, says Padilla.

Strangely, some of the communities that are waiting to receive natural gas hookups have gas pipelines running through them. Signs warn of their presence and are obvious to residents who for economic reasons cannot afford to be connected to this cheaper source of fuel. Padilla says that
to hook up 200 homes in one colonia will cost $300,000 or $1,315 per family.

This $1,315 is a lot of money, especially for an area with high unemployment and few high-paying jobs. Padilla states that most of the work done by colonia residents in the south of the county is in dairies, food processing and in low-wage jobs in nearby El Paso, Texas. In the north of Doña Ana County, almost all colonia residents work as farm laborers.

Housing in the colonias is comprised of old mobile homes and some site-built homes, the large majority of which are quite deteriorated. What's being to done to improve lives and conditions

Sitting on the porch of a friend's mobile home, on a warm, sunny January day, with toddlers playing around her, Maria Conejo looks across a sand road at construction workers who are finishing her new house. Located in the Las Palmeras colonia, Conejo's home is being built through a program
with Tierra del Sol, a not-for-profit housing organization in Doña Ana County. This new house will replace her old mobile home and will be a better, safer place for her three children.

Groups like Tierra del Sol and the Colonias Development Council (CDC) are working with colonias residents to improve conditions in the communities. According to Padilla, the CDC feels that it has had success in bringing infrastructure improvements to the Salem colonia in the north of the county, the Milagro colonia and the Las Palmeras colonia where Conejo lives. Padilla is also particularly proud of the young people he works with in the CDC's consciousness-raising, youth organizing efforts.

These sorts of success are not easily come by, however. Resources are stretched thin in dealing with the region's colonias. For example, Padilla wishes the CDC could have at least one employee for each colonia. And some colonias could clearly use more than one organizer, like Chaparral which has between 13,000 and 15,000 residents spread across two New Mexico counties (Doña Ana and Otero).

Other impediments to improving the colonias, according to Padilla, are transportation issues and language barriers. Because the colonias lack public transportation, and many residents do not have cars, it is difficult for people to attend public meetings. Also, once at the meetings, residents encounter a Spanish-English language barrier.

However, now that residents like Maria Conejo are beginning to get nice, safe housing, and connections to natural gas and wastewater treatment, perhaps neighbors and surrounding communities will be inspired to begin bettering their lives, on their own or in conjunction with groups like the Colonias Development Council.

Greg Bloom, Editor of the Frontera NorteSur (505) 646-6817)
On-line news coverage of the US-Mexico border
FNS is an outreach program of the Center for Latin American and Border Studies
New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico
To see our site or subscribe for free to our daily news service go to: http://frontera.nmsu.edu

Indians in the Republic of Texas
The following is information from a book published in 1840, A Pictorial Geography of the World by S. G. Goodrich, published by C.D. Strong in Boston, Massachusetts. Shared by Tawn Holtzman

The Indians within the limits of the white settlements, are not numerous, the aggregate number is about 12,000.; they are:
Cushattos, numbering about 350;
Alabamas, 250;
Wacos, on the Brazos, 400; and Tonakawas.

There are some Caddos, Cherokees, Choctaws, Shawnees, and other Indians from the United States, the Comanches, and the Towiash, in the northern parts of the republic.

Mexican Indian Languages: http://www.sil.org/mexico/pub/DicGram.htm Dictionaries, grammars and analyzed texts in Mexican Indian languages
Amuzgo] [Chatino] [Chinantec] [Ch'ol] [Chontal of Oaxaca] [Chontal of Tabasco] [Cora] [Cuicatec]	[Huarijio] [Huave] [Mayan] [Mayo] [Otomi] [Popoloca]	[Popoluca] [O'odham (Papago, Pima)] [Mazatec] [Mixe] [Mixtec] [Náhuatl]	[Seri] [Tarahumara] [Tepehuan] [Tequistlatec] [Tlapanec (Me'phaa)]	[Totonac] [Triqui] [Tzeltal] [Yaqui] [Zapotec] [Zoque]

Mayan Epigraphic Database Project: http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/med/medwww.html

The Mayan Epigraphic Database Project (MED) is an experiment in networked scholarship with the purpose of enhancing Classic Mayan epigraphic research. At present, MED consists of a relational database of glyphs ("gnumbers"), images, phonetic values ("pvalues"), and semantic values ("svalues") according to the consensus among various American Mayanists (MacLeod and Reents-Budet 1994). Also present is the beginning of an archive of digitally transcribed Mayan texts. Server space for MED is provided by the Institute for Advanced Technology in the Humanities (IATH) at the University of Virginia, and the Multimedia Engineering Computation Atelier (MECA) at Princeton. MED is owned by Raf Alvarado, Coordinator of Humanities and Social Sciences computing at Princeton. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Resource on Aztec and Mayan Law, Synopsis of books with author and publisher:
Tarlton Law Library, Jamil Center for Legal Research, Texas School of Law

THE TLAXCALAN ACTAS: A COMPENDIUM OF THE RECORDS OF THE CABILDO OF TLAXCALA (1545-1627). Lockhart, James, Frances Berdan, and Arthur J. O. Anderson. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1986.: The city of Tlaxcala received favored treatment from the Spaniards as a reward for helping overthrow the Aztecs. As a result, it was the only major city in New Spain whose government was dominated by Indians for several decades. The city council records studied in this volume reveal how the native ruling class and the Spanish form of municipal government adapted themselves to each other.
F 1221 T56 L63 1986

Rare Books & Special Collections Home Page Prepared by:
Mike Widener, Gin Klaren and Emma Weaver.
Mike Widener. mwidener@mail.law.utexas.edu

Editor's Note: This one really peaked my interest, fascinating tidbits. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Indian Presence at Olympics Falls Short

Larry Blackhair, a member of the Ute Indian tribe tried for three years encouraging Indian tribes across the country to show-case their culture and commerce at the 2002 Winter Olympics. Unfortunately only five from Utah participated.

The Native American communities' fracture efforts to better capitalize on a global television audience reflect historical difficulties coordinating the nations tribes. As sovereign nations, the tribes seldom work together - and frequently compete - except on matters of overriding importance involving federal policies, such as Indian casinos, reservations trusts and social services.

Olympic organizing officials say no other U.S. - hosted games have sought the tribes' involvement to such a degree. Said Jacqueline Johnson, executive director of the National Congress of American Indians, the primary lobbying arm for the country's nearly 600 federally recognized tribes.

"Tribes today are dealing with issues that are literally life-and-death ones for our communities," she said. "To be completely hones, when native people are going without adequate housing, health and other basic needs, planning for the Olympics really isn't high on the priority list fort tribes."

Extract from article by Tom Gorman, L.A. Times, pg. A8, 1-30-02

Tribal Eateries in California

The state Board of Equalization has ruled that Indian tribes are not required to collect state and local taxes on restaurant sales. The state has long tried to secure the taxes, which could have amounted to an estimated $16 million annually on sales of about $200 million. Most tribes, however, cite their status as sovereign entities and have refused to collect them.

As a result, the state has collected only about $2.9 million annually, and tribes have sued or been sued by the state over the issue. The decision does not mean that patrons will cease paying taxes on food and drinks. Several tribes impose taxes that are equivalent to state and local sales taxes.

Saying they wanted to settled the matter once and for all, the elected board members ruled unanimously in Sacramento last week to stop trying to collect the taxes, which average 7.9 percent statewide. "There is no revenue loss because we never collect it," said board member Dean Andal. "It saves the state money in the long run by not having litigation costs and by us not having to do audits," said board member Johan Klehs. The California Nations Indian Gaming Association, representing 74 of the state's 109 recognized tribes, sent a letter urging the change.

Extract from article in the O.C. Register, pg. 16, Region/State 12-25-02

Indian Tribe Competing in Pharmacy Benefits

A wealthy Indian tribe is using its status as a sovereign nation to compete with health maintenance organizations and pharmacy chains in the prescription drug business. And the state of Connecticut is considering becoming the tribe's biggest client.

As a Federally recognized tribe, the Mashantucket Pequots have access, as the Pequot Pharmacy Network, to a Federal pricing schedule for pharmaceuticals that is lower than that offered to HMOs and local and chain drugstores.

"When we met with the Pequots, they described their purchasing power and their ability to attain the lowest possible price," said Michael Starkowski, deputy commissioner of the Connecticut Department of Social Services. "They described to us a pricing schedule that would be 40 to 50 percent less than what we would be paying otherwise."

Physicians Financial News, October 1999, pg. 19

Navajo Timeline: http://www.lapahie.com/Timeline_Spanish_1551_1599.cfm
Navajo historical overview presented side by side with European/U.S. history.
The epochs are divided:
Pre-Columbus to 1491
Spanish Era: 1492-1550, 1551-1599, 1600-1699, 1700-1750, 1751-1820
Mexican:1821-1847
Navajo Wars: 1848-1868
Rez Beginning: 1869-1927|
Stock Reduction: 1928-1941
Coming out: 1941-1969 Sent by Johanna de Soto

Mascot Monty Montezuma

San Diego State University has replaced the bare-chested, spear-throwing macho mascot with Montezuma the diplomat, wearing a tunic rather than a loincloth, the result of a promose that university President Stephen Weber hopes will calm a campus controversy that has flared since fall 2000.

"I'm an educator, not an entertainer," said Alberto Martinez, the student selected to portray the 16th century Aztec ruler. "There is a lot of difference between an ambassador and a mascot." "I'm very proud of my culture and heritage and I want to share that with everybody, said Martinez, whose parents were born in Mexico. "He was a president, a general and a priest, all in one, "Martinez explained to a gathering of wide-eyed first-grade students. "Pretty amazing, wasn't it?"

University President, Stephen Weber said of the change, "This has nothing to do with being politically correct. It has to do with the responsibility of a university to be historically and anthropologically correct. . We're trying to give an accurate portrayal of a great, great civilization and possibly spark the imagination of these students."

A San Diego State group called the Native American Student Activist Organization issued a statement to the campus newspaper, the Daily Aztec, calling the new Montezuma as unacceptable as the old one.
Extract from a February article by Tony Perry, L.A. Times staff writer. Sorry, your editor didn't get the date. For more information, contact the San Diego Union-Tribune, (800) 244-6397

Marriages in the Chickasaw Nation 1855 - 1907

http://home.flash.net/~kma/m_index.htm

There have been many collections published regarding marriages performed in the Chickasaw Nation, 1855 - 1907, but those collections concern only marriages performed under United States marriage licenses AND NOT Chickasaw Tribal licenses. The collection of marriage records included herein are those which were recorded or mention in the surviving records of the old Chickasaw Nation, the majority of which were performed under tribal license.

The researcher should note that in many cases names were frequently misspelled or in some cases not readable. Additionally, I have included additional remarks and bracketed material which I felt would be of benefit. -- kma Sent by Johanna de Soto

Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory: http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/enroll/

Final Rolls 1898-1914

The Final Rolls of the Citizens and Freedmen of the Five Civilized Tribes in Indian Territory list the names of the individuals who were allowed on the tribal rolls by the Dawes Commission. Commonly called the Commission to the Five Civilized Tribes, the Dawes Commission was appointed by President Grover Cleveland in 1893. In return for abolishing their tribal governments and recognizing state and federal laws, tribe members of the Five Civilized Tribes - the Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Chickasaw and Seminole - were given a share of common property.

Dawes is a list of those members of the Five Civilized Tribes who removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) during the 1800's and were living there during the above dates. IF YOUR ANCESTOR WAS NOT LIVING IN INDIAN TERRITORY AT THIS TIME, THEY WILL NOT BE LISTED ON DAWES!!

If they were living in Indian Territory, definitely search by surname.
Editor's Note: I did not see any Spanish surnames.. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Native American Resources : http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/9537/Indian.html
Sent by Johanna de Soto

ative American Links: http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/patent

The site can be searched by State or by Tribe or Nation list.

Land patents document transfer of land ownership from the federal government to individuals. Land patent records include the information recorded when ownership was transferred.

States created out of the public domain are now in the States of Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Florida, Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

The land was disposed of by the authority of many acts of Congress - sale, homesteads, military warrants for military service, timber culture, mining, etc. One of the primary purposes of these public land laws was to encourage people from the East to move West. In the early 1800's people could buy public land for $1.25 an acre. For a time, they could buy up to 640 acres under this law. The sale of public land under the "Cash Act" is no longer in effect.

Several Military Warrant Acts granted public land to soldiers instead of pay. These acts have been repealed. The Homestead Act of 1862, allowed people to settle up to 160 acres of public land if they lived on it for five years and grew crops or made improvements. This land did not cost anything per acre, but the settler did pay a filing fee. This act is no longer in effect. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Arthritis Bear
Tribes of the Sierra Nevada are turning the plight of a gimpy bear dubbed Arthur into an opportunity to talk with state officials about the future of an animal they consider sacred. The bear that started the discussions is a middle-age, 300-pound plus animal. Veterinarians found metal pellets in Arthur's rump, but no open wounds. Director Bill Lockyer's, Office for Native American affairs has met with more than 40 Sierra-area tribes concerning this matter.
O.C. Register, 2-1-02.

Multicultural Links: http://www.azcentral.com/culturesaz/links.shtml

Native American Links | Hispanic Links Afro American Links | Asian American Links
Editor's note: Lots and lots of links - great site

Another multicultural site: http://www.azcentral.com/culturesaz/ Sent by Johanna de Soto

Indigenous Research: indigenous_peoples_literature@yahoogroups.com
This site has a great variety of information. You can be put on a notification list and receive frequent emails, plus messages that have been sent to the site. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Indigenous People messages: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/indigenous_peoples_literature/messages

In addition to websites identified as to their focus, a message board encourages submissions, such as the article below. Authored by Lee Sultzman, at: http://www.tolatsga.org/Cherokee2.html

Many Cherokee became prosperous farmers with comfortable houses, beautiful cultivated fields, and large herds of livestock. Christian missionaries arrived by invitation, and Sequoia invented an alphabet that gave them a written language and overnight made most of the Cherokee literate. They
published a newspaper, established a court system, and built schools. An inventory of Cherokee property in 1826 revealed: 1,560 black slaves. 22,000 cattle, 7,600 horses, 46,000 swine, 2,500 sheep, 762 looms, 2,488 spinning wheels, 172 wagons, 2,942 plows, 10 sawmills, 31 grist mills, 62 blacksmith shops, 8 cotton machines, 18 schools, and 18 ferries. Although the poor Cherokee still lived in simple log cabins, Chief John Ross had a $10,000 house designed by a Philadelphia architect. In fact, many Cherokee were more prosperous and 'civilized' than their increasingly envious white neighbors.

Although the leadership of the eastern Cherokee steadfastly maintained their independence and land base, they felt it was important to reach an accommodation with the Americans. They refused Tecumseh's requests for Indian unity in 1811, ignored a call for war from the Red Stick Creek in
1813, and then fought as American allies during the Creek War (1813-14). 800 Cherokee under Major Ridge were with Jackson's army at Horseshoe Bend in 1814, and according one account, a Cherokee warrior saved Jackson's life during the battle. If Jackson was grateful, he never allowed it to show. At the Fort Jackson Treaty ending the war (1814), Jackson demanded huge land cessions from both the Cherokee and Creek. As allies, the Cherokee must have been stunned at this treatment, and reluctantly agreed only after a series of four treaties signed during 1816 and 1817.

The Cherokee government afterwards became even more determined not to surrender any more land, but things were moving against them. In 1802 Cherokee land had been promised by the federal government to the state of Georgia which afterwards refused to recognize either the Cherokee Nation or its land claims. By 1822 Georgia was pressing Congress to end Cherokee title within its boundaries. $30,000 was eventually appropriated as payment but refused. Then bribery was attempted but exposed, and the Cherokee responded with a law prescribing death for anyone selling land to whites without permission.

With the election of Jackson as president in 1828, the Cherokee were in serious trouble. Gold was discovered that year on Cherokee land in northern , and miners swarmed in. Indian removal to west of the Mississippi had been suggested as early as 1802 by Thomas Jefferson and recommended by
James Monroe in his final address to Congress in 1825. With Jackson's full support, the Indian Removal Act was introduced in Congress in 1829. There it met serious opposition from Senators Daniel Webster and Henry Clay who were able to delay passage until 1830. Meanwhile, Jackson refused to enforce the treaties which protected the Cherokee homeland from encroachment. During the two years following his election, Georgia unilaterally extended its laws to Cherokee territory, dividing up Cherokee lands by lottery, and stripping the Cherokee of legal protection. Georgia citizens were free to kill, burn, and steal. With the only alternative a war which would result in annihilation, John Ross decided to fight for his people's rights in the United States courts.

The Cherokee won both cases brought before the Supreme Court: Cherokee Nation vs Georgia (1831) and Worcester vs Georgia(1832), but the legal victories were useless. Jackson's answer: "Justice Marshall has made his decision. Let him enforce it." Without federal interference, Georgia and Tennessee began a reign of terror using arrest, murder and arson against the Cherokee. Ross was arrested, and the offices of the Cherokee Phoenix burned in May, 1834. The mansion of the wealthiest Cherokee, Joseph Vann, was confiscated by the Georgia militia, and the Moravian mission and school was converted into a militia headquarters. When Ross travelled to Washington to protest, Jackson refused to see him. Instead overtures were made to Major Ridge, his son John Ridge, and nephew Elias Boudinot (Buck Oowatie), editor of the Phoenix (Cherokee newspaper). The hopelessness of the situation finally convinced these men to sign the Treaty of New Echota (December, 1835) surrendering the Cherokee Nation's homeland in exchange for $5,000,000, seven million acres in Oklahoma, and an agreement to remove within two years.

Known as the Treaty Party (Ridgites), only 350 of 17,000 Cherokee actually endorsed the agreement. Threatened by violence from their own people, they and 2,000 family members quickly gathered their property and left for Oklahoma. The treaty was clearly a fraud, and a petition of protest with
16,000 Cherokee signatures was dispatched to Washington to halt ratification. After violent debate, Jackson succeeded in pushing it through the Senate during May by the margin of a single vote. The Cherokee Nation was doomed. For the next two years, Ross tried every political and legal means to stop the removal, but failed. When the deadline arrived in May, 1838, 7,000 soldiers under General Winfield Scott (virtually the entire American Army) moved into the Cherokee homeland. The Cherokee found that their reward for 'taking the white man¹s road' was to be driven from their
homes at gunpoint. It was the beginning of the Nunadautsun't or 'the trail where we cried.' History would call it the Trail of Tears. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Federally Recognized and unrecognized California Tribes - an example to all states.

http://www.kstrom.net/isk/maps/ca/california.html

ALL CALIFORNIA RESERVATIONS in alphabetical order, with BIA address/phone contact info, SACRAMENTO AREA and AGENCY OFFICES (Nov. 1996). Federally-recognized tribes only. The official name, not the tribe; tribes and infolinks from the list below on this page.

CA Federally non-recognized Tribes -- names, addresses, from Native Studies at California's Humboldt State University. For any of these that have websites, consult my Non-recognized Tribes index here. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Native American Directory of Vital Records at the Records Room
http://www.daddezio.com/records/room/indian.html

Welcome to the Native American vital records room. Finding vital records for Indian tribes is a difficult challenge, many vital records were lost as the tribes got pushed westward onto reservations. We've cataloged addresses, plus online and offline vital records for each North American tribal unit.

THE DIVERSITY OF INDIGENOUS MEXICO
By
John P. Schmal

If your ancestors came from Mexico, you may not realize just how diverse your origins are. Many people, when speaking about the history of Mexico, may reference the Indians of Mexico as if they are primarily descended from one or two homogenous groups. For the most part, when people think of Mexican Indians, the words Aztec or Maya come to mind. However, from the arrival of the Spaniards in 1519 to the present day, Mexico has boasted a rich and very diverse ethnic makeup.

In 1877, an estimated 39% of Mexico's population spoke indigenous languages. However, by 1910, the Indian population had declined to 32%, even though they had increased in absolute numbers. However, at the same time, only 13% of the population of the Republic spoke Indian languages. By 1995, 7.8 million inhabitants of Mexico, comprising 8% of the national population, spoke at least one of the 289 living aboriginal languages spoken in Mexico today.

The largest number of Mexican Indians can be found in the southeastern part of the country. States containing indigenous populations of over 200,000 people are: Chiapas, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Mexico, Oaxaca, Puebla, San Luis Potosí, Veracruz, and Yucatan. It is important to note, however, that the vast majority of the Mexican people, while not declaring themselves to be officially indigenous, is descended from the large and diverse Indian population that occupied every corner of Mexico for so many centuries.

The Republic of Mexico, consisting of 756,066 square miles, is composed of mountains, plateaus, deserts, tropical forests, and fertile valleys. Mexico's many mountain ranges and plateaus tend to split the country into countless mountain valleys, each forming a world of its own. This fragmentation, according to the historian Nigel Davies, led each geographical unit to develop languages and cultures of its own. The resulting cultural and linguistic diversity played a critical role in Spain's conquest of the indigenous peoples of Mexico.

During the two hundred years following the first European contact (1519-1719), the Spaniards, moving from one part of Mexico to another, were quick to seek alliances with one indigenous group against another. They came to realize that their best hope for successful incorporation of isolated and defiant Indian groups was to enlist the help of other Indians, especially those who had converted to Christianity. As a result, the numerous coalitions the Spaniards forged became invaluable tools for the conquest and consolidation of Spanish power in the large region we now call Mexico.

The most well-known and celebrated Indian group of Mexico is the Aztec Indians who - in the Fifteenth Century - started a formidable military empire. From the Central Mexican Valley, situated some 8,000 feet above sea level in the heart of the North American continent, the Aztecs established an elaborate and wide-ranging empire that extended west, east, and south, even touching the present-day states of Veracruz, Oaxaca and Chiapas.

The Aztec Empire of 1519 was the most powerful Mesoamerican kingdom of all time. This multi-ethnic, multi-lingual realm stretched for more than 80,000 square miles through many parts of what is now central and southern Mexico. This enormous empire reached from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf coast and from central Mexico to the present-day Republic of Guatemala. Fifteen million people, living in thirty-eight provinces and residing in 489 communities, paid tribute to the Emperor Moctezuma II in Tenochtitlán, the capital city of the great empire.

The use of the word Aztec to designate an individual ethnic group is not entirely accurate. As a matter of fact, the term, properly speaking, refers to all the Nahua-speaking peoples in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were divided into numerous local ethnic groups that were linked together into the broader Aztec culture by a common language (Náhuatl), a common historical origin, and many shared cultural traits. The most important of the Aztec Indians was the Mexica (pronounced "me-shee-ka") tribe (also called the Tenocha). By the Sixteenth Century, the Mexica - through superior military power and a series of strategic alliances - had become the dominant ethnic group ruling over the Aztec Empire from their capital city at Tenochtitlán in the Valley of Mexico.

The Mexica had very obscure and humble roots that made their rise to power even more remarkable. Legend tells us that in A.D. 1111, the Aztec Indians left their home in Aztlan (The Place of Herons), believed to be located in northwestern Mexico. However, Dr. Michael E. Smith, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Albany in New York, has written that the Aztlan migrations were not one simple movement of a single group of people. As a matter of fact, Dr. Smith explains, "when all of the native histories are compared, no fewer than seventeen ethnic groups are listed among the original tribes migrating from Aztlan." It is believed that the migrations southward probably took place over several generations. "Led by priests," continues Professor Smith, "the migrants… stopped periodically to build houses and temples, to gather and cultivate food, and to carry out rituals."

The first group of migrants probably included the Acolhua, Tepaneca, Culhua, Chalca, Xochimilca, all of whom settled in the Valley of Mexico. The second group, including the Tlahuica of present-day Morelos, the Matlatzinca of Toluca Valley, the Tlaxcalans of Tlaxcala, the Huexotzinca of Puebla, and the Malinalca of Malinalco, migrated to the surrounding valleys. Not until A.D. 1248 did the Mexica arrive in the Valley as the last group of migrants. By A.D. 1327, the Mexica were able to establish their famous home at Tenochtitlán in the middle of Lake Texcoco. Fifteen years after the founding of Tenochtitlán, the Mexica achieved dominance in the Valley by forming a triple alliance with their neighbors at Texcoco and Tlacopan.

Within the seemingly invincible Aztec Empire lay the roots of its own destruction. As Hernán Cortés and his small band of Spanish soldiers made their way from the Gulf of Mexico to Tenochtitlán in 1519, they began to understand the complex relationship between the Mexica masters and their subject tribes. Human sacrifice played an integral role in the culture of the Aztecs. As tribute, the Mexica demanded sacrificial victims from their various subject tribes. Understanding the fear and hatred that many of the Indians developed for their Mexica masters, Cortés started to build alliances with some of the neighboring tribes, thereby initiating an indigenous rebellion against Mexica rule.

By the time that Cortés began his final assault on Tenochtitlán in March 1521, he had assembled an impressive coalition of indigenous soldiers from various parts of the Aztec Empire. He is believed to have had as many as 100,000 Indian allies within his ranks. These allies included Tlaxcalans, Texcocoans, Totonacs, and various Aztec warriors from the Valley of Mexico. On August 13, 1521, after a 75-day siege, Tenochtitlán finally fell. But the anthropologist Eric R. Wolf stressed the importance of Cortés' Indian allies in the capture of Tenochtitlán.

Dr. Wolf writes that "Spanish firepower and cavalry would have been impotent against the Mexica armies without" the support of the Tlaxcalans and the Texcocoans. The allies "furnished the bulk of the infantry and manned the canoes that covered the advance of the brigantines across the lagoon of Tenochtitlán." In addition, "they provided, transported, and prepared the food supplies needed to sustain an army in the field. They maintained lines of communication between the coast and highland, and they policed occupied and pacified areas." Dr. Wolf states that the Indian allies also "supplied the raw materials and muscular energy for the construction of the ships that decided the siege of the Mexican capital." In conclusion, he states that while "Spanish military equipment and tactics carried the day," the "Indian assistance determined the outcome of the war."

The Aztec Indians of Central Mexico belong to the Uto-Aztecan linguistic group, which is one of the largest language groups in both Mexico and North America. According to the Instituto Lingüístico de Verano (the Summer Institute of Linguistics), at least 1,697,000 people in Mexico speak Uto-Aztecan languages. The wide-ranging Uto-Aztecan linguistic group is divided into four main branches: 1) the Corachol family (consisting of the Cora and Huichol Indians of Nayarit and Zacatecas); 2) the Náhuatl family (of the Aztecs); 3) the Tepiman Family (spoken by the Papago, Pima Bajo, and Tepehuán of Sonora, Chihuahua and Durango); and 4) the Taracahitic family (spoken by the Mayo, Yaqui and Tarahumara of northwestern Mexico). As you might expect, a family is a group of languages that are genetically and culturally related to one another.

The range of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic group actually exceeds - by far - the boundaries of the Mexican Republic. The northernmost Uto-Aztecan language, Northern Paiute, is found as far north as Oregon and Idaho in the northwestern United States. And several tribes of the Náhuatl family live as far south as Nicaragua and El Salvador (where the Pipil dialect is spoken).

During the campaign against Tenochtitlán, the most indispensable ally of Cortés in the downfall of the Aztec Empire was the Náhuatl-speaking Tlaxcalan tribe. The Tlaxcalans, living directly east of Mexico City in the present-day state of Tlaxcala, were fiercely independent and continued to survive as an independent enclave surrounded by a sea of hostile Aztec subordinates. At the time of the Spanish contact, Tlaxcala was a small, densely-populated "confederation of four republics" with a population of about 150,000 settled in some 200 settlements.

Some historians believe that Tenochtitlán could easily have overwhelmed Tlaxcala, and that the reason the Mexica did not is probably because they wanted a nearby source of victims for human sacrifice. Therefore the Aztecs maintained a perpetual state of war with the neighboring confederation, but never actually conquered it. The Aztecs also seem to have regarded the frequent battles as a convenient way of testing and training their younger warriors for war. By the time that Cortés arrived in the Western Hemisphere, the Tlaxcalans had been subjected to continuous warfare and human sacrifice for decades. This situation was so hateful to the Tlaxcalans that they became Cortés' most loyal Amerindian allies, in the hope that the Europeans would be able to help them defeat their oppressors.

The relationship of the Tlaxcalans and the Spaniards would become a significant and lasting alliance. In the next century, Tlaxcalan soldiers and settlers, riding their own horses and bearing Christian names, weapons, and agricultural tools, would accompany their Spanish allies to locations throughout Mexico. In return for their services, the Tlaxcalans were given many privileges, such as freedom from paying taxes or tribute "in perpetuity."

The dominant linguistic group in northwestern Mexico is the Uto-Aztecan. Although Náhuatl dominates the regions of the former Aztec Empire in southern Mexico, the Tepiman and Taracahitan Families have several subdivisions in the northwestern states. From the Tepiman Family, the Tepehuán language has three major variants, one in Chihuahua and two in Durango. Today, Northern Tepehuán is spoken in western Chihuahua by about 5,000 people, while Southern Tepehuán is spoken in southern Durango by about 20,000 speakers. After their defeat by the Spanish in 1616-1619, the Tepehuanes were forced to retreat into the mountains from their ancestral homeland in the central Durango plains.

One of the most significant branches of the Uto-Aztecan group in northwestern Mexico is the Taracahitan Family (which includes the Mayo, Tarahumara, and Yaqui Indians). In the northwest coastal plains of Sinaloa and Sonora, the Cáhita subgroup of the Taracahitian family was the most dominant indigenous group. Speaking eighteen closely related dialects, the Cáhita peoples of Sinaloa and Sonora numbered about 115,000 in 1521 and were the most numerous of any single language group in northern Mexico.

The fiercely independent Yaqui Indians fought with Spanish forces for the first time in
1529. During 1609-1610, they successfully resisted another intrusion, but in 1617, asked Jesuit missionaries to begin working among them. During this time, both the Mayo and Yaqui converted to Christianity and lived in peace for more than 120 years. However, in 1740, both the Mayo and Yaqui revolted against Spanish rule.

Under Spanish rule, the Yaquis enjoyed a certain amount of autonomy. However, with the independence of the Mexican Republic, Yaqui insurrections were almost continuous from 1825 to 1901. One government study published in 1905 cited 270 instances of both Yaqui and Mayo warfare from 1529 to 1902, excluding the eight-five years of relative peace from 1740 to 1825. During the Nineteenth Century, the Yaquis laid claim to some 6,000 square miles, including the cities of Guaymas and Ciudad Obregon, but the administration of Porfirio Diaz, in response to Yaqui defiance, deported thousands of the Indians to Yucatan and other states. Many Yaquis also fled to southern Arizona, California, and New Mexico.

One small force of Yaquis held out against the Mexican national army in the Sierra de Bacatete (Sonora) until 1918, and all Yaqui resistance was finally brought to an end in 1936. In the present day, the Yaqui Indians of Mexico are believed to number almost 11,000. The Mayo Indians, whose resistance ended in the 1880s, lived along the lower courses of the Fuerte River (northern Sinaloa) and the Mayo and Yaqui rivers (southern Sonora). Today, the Mayos are believed to number more than 37,000 individuals.

The Tarahumara Indians are another Uto-Aztecan-speaking tribe inhabiting almost 35,000 square kilometers in the mountainous southwestern corner of Chihuahua. Referred to as Rarámuri, which basically means "runners on foot," many of the Tarahumara live as mountain dwellers (pagótame) and canyon dwellers (poblanos). Their population presently numbers at least 54,000.

For more than a thousand years, Michoacán, located in central Mexico along the Pacific coast, has been the home of the Purhépecha Indians (more popularly known as the Tarascans). The modern state of Michoacán preserves, to a great extent, the territorial integrity of the pre-Columbian Kingdom of the Purhépecha. The The name Michoacán derives from the Náhuatl terms, michin (fish) and hua (those who have) and can (place) which roughly translates into Place of the Fisherman. This kingdom was one of the most prosperous and extensive empires in the pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican world.

Eventually, the Purhépecha Kingdom would control an area of at least 45,000 square miles (72,500 square kilometers), including parts of the present-day states of Guanajuato, Guerrero, Querétaro, Colima, and Jalisco. However, 240 miles to east, the Aztec Empire, centered in Tenochtitlán, had begun its ascendancy in the Valley of Mexico. As the Aztecs expanded their empire beyond the Valley, they came into conflict with the Tarascans. More than once, the Aztecs tried to conquer the Tarascan lands. But, in all of their major confrontations, the Tarascans were always victorious over the Aztecs.

During the reign of the Tarascan king Tzitzic Pandacuare, the Aztecs launched a powerful offensive against their powerful neighbors in the west. This offensive turned into a bloody and protracted conflict lasting from 1469 to 1478. Finally, in 1478, the ruling Aztec lord, Tlatoani Axayácatl, led a force of 32,000 Aztec warriors against an army of almost 50,000 Tarascans in the Battle of Taximaroa (today the city of Hidalgo). After a daylong battle, Axayácatl decided to withdraw his surviving warriors. It is believed that the Tarascans annihilated at least 20,000 warriors. In the art of war, the Purhépecha had one major advantage over the Aztecs, in their use of copper for spear tips and shields. By 1530, the Tarascans submitted to Spanish rule.

The Purhépecha (Tarascan) Indians of Michoacán speak a language that does not appear to be closely linked to any other Native American or Mexican languages. There are two main variants and perhaps a dozen minor variants of this unique tongue. The Purhépechas have their own flag, which consists of pink, blue, green and yellow squares with a clenched fist and arrows in the middle, representing the unity of the Purhépecha region. Several newspapers publish sections in the language, and at least one periodical is predominately Purépecha. Catholic church services are held in Purépecha in many of the villages occasionally. Pride in both the language and culture of the ancient Purépecha seems to be on the rise, with governmental encouragement.

Although the Aztec Empire may have controlled some 15 million inhabitants during its heyday, a large part of the present-day area of Mexican Republic remained independent of both the Tarascans and the Aztecs. Many of the nomadic indigenous groups who inhabited the arid semi-desert region of central Mexico were left alone by the Aztecs.

The modern Mexican state of Jalisco consists of 80,684 square kilometers located in the west central portion of the Mexican Republic. Located north of Jalisco is the state of Zacatecas, which occupies another 75,040 square kilometers. However, the Jalisco and Zacatecas of colonial Mexico were not individual political entities but part of the greater Spanish province of Nueva Galicia, which embraced more than 180,000 kilometers ranging from the Pacific Ocean to the foothills of the Sierra Madre Occidental.

Besides the present-day states of Jalisco and Zacatecas, Nueva Galicia also included the parts of the present-day states of Aguascalientes, Nayarit, and San Luis Potosí. Across this broad range of territory, a wide array of indigenous groups lived during the Sixteenth Century. Domingo Lázaro de Arregui, in his Descripción de la Nueva Galicia - published in 1621 - wrote that 72 languages were spoken in the Spanish colonial province of Nueva Galicia.

As the Spaniards and their Amerindian allies from the south made their way into Nueva Galicia early in the Sixteenth Century, they encountered large numbers of nomadic Chichimeca Indians. Philip Wayne Powell - whose Soldiers, Indians, and Silver: North America's First Frontier War is the definitive source of information relating to the Chichimeca Indians - referred to Chichimeca as "an all-inclusive epithet" that had "a spiteful connotation." Utilizing the Náhuatl terms for dog (chichi) and rope (mecatl), the Aztecs referred to the Chichimecas literally as "of dog lineage." But some historians have explained that the word Chichimeca has been subject to various interpretations over the years, including "perros altaneros" (arrogant dogs), or "chupadores de sangre" (blood-suckers). The Spaniards borrowed this designation from their Aztec allies and started to refer to the large stretch Chichimeca territory as La Gran Chichimeca (the Great Chichimeca).

The Zacatecos Indians, occupying 60,000 square kilometers in the present-day state of Zacatecas, may have numbered as many as 90,000 in 1519. By 1620-25, they are believed to have numbered only 1,500. The Guachichile Indians were believed to be the most populous Chichimeca nation, occupying perhaps 100,000 square kilometers, from Lake Chapala in Jalisco to modern Saltillo in Coahuila. The Guachichiles were settled in various barrios of San Luis Potosí, where they gradually assimilated into the more dominant Tlaxcalan and Otomí cultures. The Chichimeca War started in 1550 when a group of Zacatecos attacked and robbed Purhépecha Indians along the roads to the mines.

The Chichimeca War would last four decades and nearly empty the Spanish-Indian settlements in Zacatecas and neighboring areas. In hand-to-hand combat, the Chichimeca warriors gained a reputation for courage and ferocity. Even when the Chichimeca was attacked in his hideout or stronghold, Dr. Powell writes, "he usually put up vigorous resistance, especially if unable to escape the onslaught. In such cases, he fought - with arrows, clubs, or even rocks… Even the women might take up the fight, using the weapons of fallen braves. The warriors did not readily surrender and were known to fight on with great strength even after receiving mortal wounds."

Finally, in 1586, the Spanish Viceroy Villamanrique took steps to launch a full-scale peace offensive. After outlawing the enslavement of Chichimeca Indians by Spanish soldiers, he opened negotiations with the principal Chichimeca leaders, and, according to Dr. Powell, made to them promises of food, clothing, lands, religious administration, and agricultural implements to attract them to peaceful settlement." As it turns out, the olive branch proved to be more persuasive than the sword, and on November 25, 1589, the Viceroy was able to report to the King that the long state of war had finally ended. "After forty years of war," writes Dr. Powell, "Spanish domination of the Gran Chichimeca of Sixteenth-Century Mexico was achieved, not by the sword but by a combination of diplomacy, purchase, and religious conversion."

The significant role of the sedentary, Christian Indian in the extended Chichimeca War started an important policy which would contribute to the consolidation of Spanish power and Mexicanization of the Amerindian people. "As with almost every phase of the Spanish conquest of Mexico," writes Dr. Powell, "Indians formed the bulk of the fighting forces against the Chichimeca warriors." In describing the detailed contribution of the Mexican Indians to the Spanish cause, Dr. Powell continues:

"As fighters, as burden bearers, as interpreters, as scouts, as emissaries, the pacified natives of New Spain played significant and often indispensable roles in subjugating and civilizing the Chichimeca country. Occasionally armies composed exclusively of these native warriors (particularly the Otomíes) roamed the tierra de guerra to seek out, defeat, and help Christianize the hostile nomad of the north. On some parts of the frontier defense against Chichimeca attacks was at times exclusively in the hands of the native population... Spanish authority and personnel were in most cases supervising agents for manpower supplied by Indian allies. The white men were the organizers of the effort; native allies did much of the hard work and often bore the brunt of the fighting. In the early years of the war the Spaniards placed heavy reliance upon those natives who had been wholly or partly subdued by the Cortesian conquest - Mexicans, Tarascans, Otomíes, among others."

"This use of native allies," states Dr. Powell, "... led eventually to a virtual disappearance of the nomadic tribes as they were absorbed into the northward-moving Tarascans, Aztecs, Cholultecans, Otomíes, Tlaxcalans, Cazcanes, and others... within a few decades of the general pacification at the end of the century the Guachichiles, Zacatecos, Guamares, and other tribes or nations were disappearing as distinguishable entities in the Gran Chichimeca." And thus, Mr. Powell concludes, "the sixteenth-century land of war thus became fully Mexican in its mixture."

Today, the Zacatecos and Guachichile Indians do not exist as cultural entities. But while disease and warfare may have taken their toll on these indigenous peoples, it is also likely that assimilation accelerated the demise of their cultures. As the Chichimeca War drew to a close many Chichimecas had come to realize the advantages and comforts of becoming sedentary Indians.

The Chichimecas were encouraged to settle in "congregated settlements" to enjoy their gifts of food and clothing. In addition, the Spaniards arranged for the settlement of "civilized agriculturalist Indians" (such as Tlaxcalans) alongside the new Chichimeca settlements.

Quickly realizing the advantages of going north, Dr. Powell notes that Cholulans, Tlaxcalans, Aztecs, Mexicas, Tarascans, Huejotzingas, and Otomíes had "gone forth to the wilderness, serving as examples for the savages but primarily attracted by higher wages and other opportunities."

As a result, states Dr. Powell, "thousands of individual Indians and families" journeyed from the south to the mining camps of Zacatecas and Guanajuato. In Mexico's Miguel Caldera: The Taming of America's First Frontier (1548-1597), Dr. Powell writes that these central Mexican natives came "as employees, as merchants, as organized military forces, or simply as adventurers, following the northward-pulling magnets of mining discoveries, town-founding, work and landholding opportunities, or the attractions of warfare."

From one mining camp to the next, from one hacienda to another, the same process evolved. Originally settled by Spaniards, Africans, Indians and mestizos from towns and provinces of Central Mexico, each camp became a magnet for those who aspired to improve their lot in life. As the silver mines multiplied, many Aztecs, Tlaxcalans, Purhépechas, Cholulans, and Otomíes had come to labor in the Zacatecas mining camps and hired themselves out to Spanish entrepreneurs to dig for silver ore or carry the ore to the refineries. At first, each ethnic group brought to the camp its cultural identity and practices. But over time, cultural identities merged and evolved.

The City of Zacatecas provides us with the best example of assimilation and Mexicanization of a particular community. Founded in 1548 after major silver ore discoveries, Zacatecas was first settled by about 250 Spanish miners and their African slaves. Peter Gerhard, in The North Frontier of New Spain, writes that the first mine workers were Zacatecos Indians, who had accepted the offer of the Spanish authorities to settle down and go to work in the mines and on the farms.

However, very soon, the Zacatecos Indians were followed by Tarascans, Mexicas, Cazcanes (from northern Jalisco), as well as indigenous laborers from Tlaxomulco (in central Jalisco) and Juchipila (in southwestern Zacatecas). According to Dr. Gerhard, each Indian group occupied its own barrio, and each of these pueblos were initially segregated by both nationality and language. Some of the barrios included Mexicalpa (a Mexica community), Tlacuitlapan (a Tlaxcalan community), Tonalá (Tarascans and Tecuexes), and El Niño (Texcocoans). Over time, however, all of these communities merged and assimilated into the general community.

In his work Indians into Mexicans: History and Identity in a Mexican Town, the anthropologist David Frye, cites the example of Mexquitic, San Luis Potosí. This small town was founded in 1591 by 200 Guachichile and 100 Tlaxcalan settlers. Within a century, the Tlaxcalan population increased to a thousand and, by 1792, it reached 8,000. However, in the summer of 1592, gold had been discovered in the hills east of town, and the area was overrun by numerous migrants from Central Mexico, Tarascans, Mexicas, Otomíes, and Spaniards. As a result, the present-day inhabitants of Mexquitic can claim to be descended from the Tlaxcalans, Guachichiles, Tarascans, Mexicas, Otomíes, Spaniards and other ethnic groups.

In 1552, Captain Juan de Jaso discovered the rich silver mines in present-day Guanajuato, the capital of the state by the same name. Guanajuato was located in the territory of Guamar and Pame Indians. Unfortunately, this area was hard hit by the epidemics of smallpox, measles, and Typhoid fever, against which the natives had no natural resistance. Today, the Pame Indians are the only Chichimeca group that has survived up to the present day. Their original territory consisted of 45,000 square kilometers, and their population may have reached 70,000 by the time of the Spanish contact of the 1520s. By 1620-25, however, the Pames numbered only 25,000. Today, they number at least 6,000 individuals.

The Totonac Indians were one of the smaller indigenous groups of Old Mexico. Occupying the coastal area in the present State of Vera Cruz and the Zacatlan district in Puebla, they inhabited at least fifty towns, boasting a total population of a quarter of a million. Their capital, Cempoala, about five miles inland from the present city of Vera Cruz, had a population of about 25,000. The Totonac were the first natives whom Cortés met after his landing in Mexico in 1519. According to their own traditions, the Totonacs had maintained an independent kingdom until they were subjugated by the Aztecs a quarter of a century before the arrival of the Spaniards.

Being compelled by the Aztec warlords to the payment of a heavy tribute and to other exactions, including the frequent seizure of their people for slaves or for sacrifice in the bloody Aztec rites, they were ripe for revolt. King Chicomacatt eagerly welcomed Cortés and promised the support of his fifty thousand warriors against Moctezuma. In spite of wars, epidemics, and oppressions, the Totonacs still number about 208,000. The modern Totonac of Puebla and Vera Cruz are industrious farmers, their chief crop being sugar cane, from which they manufacture sugar in their own mills. They are also expert fishermen. Linguists believe that the Totonac language is of independent stock, with considerable borrowings from Huastec and Aztec.

The most diverse indigenous representation in present-day Mexico can be found in the state of Oaxaca. Oaxaca is characterized by extreme geographic fragmentation with one of the most extensive mountain systems in the world and wide tropical coastal plains and fertile valleys. With extensive mountain ranges throughout the state, Oaxaca has an average altitude of 1,500 meters (5,085 feet) above sea level.

As the fifth largest state of Mexico, Oaxaca is divided into 571 municipios (almost one-quarter of the national total). Oaxaca's rugged topography has played a significant role in giving rise to its amazing cultural diversity. Because individual towns and tribal groups lived in isolation from each other for long periods of time, the subsequent seclusion allowed sixteen ethnolinguistic groups to maintain their individual languages, customs and ancestral traditions intact well into the colonial era.

The historian María de Los Angeles Romero Frizzi suggests that "the linguistic categorization is somewhat misleading" partly because "the majority of indigenous peoples in Oaxaca identify more closely with their village or their community than with their ethnolinguistic group." For this reason, writes Ms. Romero, some of the language families - including Zapotec, Mixtec, and Mazatec - "encompass a variety of regional languages, making for a more diverse picture than the number sixteen would suggest."

By the time the Spaniards arrived in the Valley of Oaxaca in 1521, the inhabitants had split into hundreds of independent village-states. Even today, with a total population of 3.3 million people, Oaxaca's indigenous population numbers more than two million. According to the 1990 census, 19.3 percent of the national total of Indian-language speakers lived in Oaxaca. By 1993, 39.1% of the state's population over five years of age spoke at least one of Oaxaca's 200 indigenous dialects, making Oaxaca the most ethnically complex of Mexico's thirty-one states.

Oaxaca's two largest indigenous groups are the Zapotecs and the Mixtecs. The other ethnic groups include the Nahua, Mazatec, Mixe, Chocho, Chicatec, Chinatec, Trique, Amuzgo, Chantino, Chontal, Zoque and the Huave groups. Altogether, these fourteen indigenous language groups account for at least ninety separate dialects. The roots of many of these indigenous groups stretch very deeply into the early Mesoamerican era of Oaxaca. One of the best sources of information about the Oaxaca Indians is Juan Antonio Ruiz Zwollo's award-winning Travel Guide for the State and City of Oaxaca, which can be accessed at http://oaxaca-travel.com/. Among other things, this website features: "Oaxaca's Tourist Guide: Indigenous Villages."

The Zapotecs, as the largest indigenous group of Oaxaca, occupy sixty-seven of Oaxaca's 571 municipios. The Zapotec language is the most widely spoken language of Oaxaca with approximately 531,000 Mexican nationals speaking this Oto-Manguean language. Of the 173 living Oto-Manguean dialects, sixty-four are Zapotecan. These tongues are divided into three geographic subgroups which reside within Oaxaca and parts of Chiapas and Veracruz.

Several varieties of Zoque are spoken by 43,160 people in the states of Chiapas, Veracruz and Oaxaca in Mexico. The Zoque of Oaxaca number less than 5,000 and are concentrated in the Chimalapa region. The Mixtecan language family, spoken by 384,000 citizens, is one of the largest and most diverse families in the Oto-Manguean stock and include three main groups: Mixtec, Cuicatec and Trique. These languages are spoken primarily in the western part of the state of Oaxaca, but Mixtec is also spoken in neighboring parts of Puebla and Guerrero.

The Chatino nation, boasting an area of 3,071 square miles (7,677 square kilometers) also belongs to the Oto-Manguean language group and is divided into seven main dialects. The Chinantecos, numbering about 104,000 people, presently inhabit the Chinantla region of north central Oaxaca near the border of Veracruz. As another division of the Oto-Manguean linguistic group, the Chinantecos speak thirteen mutually unintelligible dialects.

Although they represent the third-largest of Oaxaca's ethnic groups, the Mixes are an isolated ethnic group that inhabits the northeastern part of Oaxaca, close to the border with Veracruz. This region consists of nineteen municipios and 108 communities. Today, some 95,000 people speak one of the seven distinct dialects of the Mixe language.

The Maya make up the largest homogenous group of Indians north of Peru, inhabiting a vast area that encompasses Mexico's Yucatan peninsula and parts of the states of Tabasco and Chiapas, as well as Guatemala, Belize and parts of western Honduras and El Salvador. While not the earliest of the great Mesoamerican civilizations, the Maya are generally considered the most brilliant of all the Classic groups. The culture's beginnings have been traced back to 1500 BC, entering the Classic period about 300 AD and flourishing between 600 and 900 AD.

The Mayan Family of languages are spoken by the descendants of the Mayas in southern Mexico and Guatemala (Quiche, Mam, Tzotzil, Cakchiquel, Yucatec). In all, there are some thirty Mayan languages, divided into eight branches spoken in seven Mexican states: Chiapas, Tabasco, Yucatán, Quintana Roo, Campeche, San Luis Potosí and Veracruz. The language is also spoken in Guatemala. The total number of Mayan speakers is over 1.5 million, with 713,520 Mexican nationals speaking the language in 1990.

The Mayan Indians are probably the most respected and well-known of Mexico's indigenous groups. Their numerous ruins (including pyramids and other temples) are located in the states of Chiapas and Yucatan (as well as Guatemala) and represent invaluable archaeological sites. The artifacts discovered into in these sites have shed some light on this ancient and intriguing culture which had invented the abstract symbol of zero long before it was used in Europe. It is also believed that the Mayan calendar was more efficient than the Julian calendar that was used by the Spaniards in the Sixteenth Century.

The Huasteco Indians, who presently occupy fifty-five municipios in the modern-day states of Veracruz, San Luis Potosí and Hidalgo, represent a northern extension of the Mayan linguistic group. It is believed that they were isolated from the rest of the Maya and evolved separately and may have arrived in the central coastal region as early as 200 A.D. During the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries, this region was an important cotton-growing region. When the Aztec Empire subdued the Huastecos, they forced them to pay tribute in the form of skins, paper, cotton and blankets. But the Huastecos constantly rebelled against their Mexica overlords, and when the Spaniards arrived in 1520, they fiercely resisted their overtures as well.

In 1520, the Huastecos wiped out a small Spanish settlement that had been set up in their territory. Once he had taken control of Tenochtitlán in August 1521, Cortés marched toward Huasteco territory with a large force of Spaniards and Mexica allies. After meeting with considerable resistance, Cortés defeated the Huastecos and founded the Villa de San Esteban in 1522. However, revolts by the Huastecos in October-December 1523 and 1525-26 were put down with great cruelty. In spite of their battles with both the Mexica and the Spaniards, the Huastecos continue to survive today, maintaining many aspects of their traditional culture and language. Huastecan music and dancing have influenced the musical folklore of Mexico. The contemporary Huasteco population numbers about 80,000 in Veracruz and San Luis Potosí.

The history and etymology of Mexico's numerous Indian groups could fill volumes and no amount of discussion could ever hope to tell the entire story. The multi-volume Handbook of Middle American Indians has gone to great lengths in describing the anthropology, ethnology and linguistic development of Mexico's indigenous peoples. However, after 1519, the dynamics of indigenous Mexico changed dramatically.

Donna Morales and I, in our unpublished work My Family Through Time: The Story of a Mexican-American Family, wrote that "War, settlements, agriculture, the mining industry, encomiendas, and slavery have all contributed to major population movements that transformed, displaced and integrated the pre-Hispanic Indian population of Mexico. As a result, many areas of Mexico lost their homogeneous character." Today, we can safely state that more than ninety percent of Mexico's people – and most Mexican-Americans – are descended from the original inhabitants of Mexico. Although most of them may not claim to be Indian in ethnicity, they are indeed the inheritors of Mexico's indigenous legacy.

Copyright © 2002 by John P. Schmal. All rights under applicable law are hereby reserved. Material from this article may be reproduced for educational purposes and personal, non-commercial home use only. Reproduction of this article for commercial purposes is strictly prohibited without the express permission of John P. Schmal

Sources:

Pam Burke, "Indigenous Groups in Mexico," July 17, 1995. Online: http://www.bsos.umd.edu/cidcm/mar/indmex.htm
July 11, 2000.

Nigel Davies, The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico. London: Penguin Books, 1990.

"Diagnostico de los Pueblos Indigenas de la Huasteca." Online:
http://www.sedesol.gob.mx/perfiles/regional/huasteca/index.html. January 12, 2002.

Estadísticas poblacionales por Familia, "Population Statistics by Family," Online:
http://www.sil.org/americas/mexico/poblacion.htm. 2000.

María de Los Angeles Romero Frizzi, "The Indigenous Population of Oaxaca From the Sixteenth Century to the Present," in Richard E.W. Adams and Murdo J. MacLeod (eds.), The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, Volume II, Mesoamerica, Part 2. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

David Frye, Indians into Mexicans: History and Identity in a Mexican Town. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1996.

Peter Gerhard, A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain (Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972).

Peter Gerhard, The North Frontier of New Spain. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1982.

H. R. Harvey and Isabel Kelly, "The Totonac" in Evon Z. Vogt, Handbook of Middle American Indians, Part Two, Vol. 8 (Austin: University of Texas, 1969), 638-681.

Shelley Bowen Hatfield, Chasing Shadows: Indians Along the United States-Mexico Border 1876-1911. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1998.

Instituto de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI), Población de Cinco Años y Más Que Habla Alguna Lengua Indígena (1990, XI Censo General de Población y vivienda).

Instituto Linguístico de Verano, A.C., "Familia Tarasca: Tarascan Family," Online:
http://www.sil.org/americas/mexico/tarasca/familia-tarasca.htm . August 14, 2001.

"Lenguas Zapotecas / Zapotec Languages." Online:
http://zapotec.agron.iastate.edu/lenguas.html . July 22, 2001

Donna S. Morales and John P. Schmal, My Family Through Time: The Story of a Mexican-American Family. Los Angeles, California, 2000.

"National Profile of the Indigenous Peoples of Mexico: Identity." Online: http://www.sedesol.gob.mx/perfiles/nacional/english/04_identity.htm l. July 24, 2001.

Philip Wayne Powell, Mexico's Miguel Caldera: The Taming of America's First Frontier (1548-1597). Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1977.

Philip Wayne Powell, Soldiers Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War. Tempe, Arizona: Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University, 1975.

Robert Mario Salmon, Indian Revolts in Northern New Spain: A Synthesis of Resistance (1680-1786). Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1991.

Michael E. Smith, The Aztecs. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell Publishers, Inc., 1996.

Edward H. Spicer Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533-1960. Tucson, Arizona: University of Arizona Press, 1997.

Guy Stresser-Pean, "Ancient Sources on the Huasteca," in Gordon F. Ekholm and Ignacio Bernal (eds.), Handbook of Middle American Indians, Volume 11, Archaeology of Northern Mesoamerica, Part 2. London: University of Texas Press, Ltd., 1971.

Bernardino Verástique. Michoacán and Eden: Vasco de Quiroga and the Evangelization of Western Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press, 2000.

Robert Wauchope (general editor), Handbook of Middle American Indians, 16 volumes and supplements. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1964-1972.

Eric R Wolf, Sons of the Shaking Earth. Chicago:University of Chicago Press, Phoenix Books,1959.

Linda Zoontjens, Brief History of the Yaqui and their Land. Online: http://sustainedaction.org/Explorations/history_of_the_yaqui.htm . July 8, 2001

Juan Antonio Ruiz Zwollo, "Oaxaca's Tourist Guide: Indigenous Villages." 1995-2000. Online: http://oaxaca-travel.com/guide/indigenous. July 20, 2001

Digital Presentation in an Uncertain Future
Baugh Hall, South Texas Archives & Special Collections, Texas A&M
University-Kingsville, March 26, 2002. 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.

As libraries increasingly rely on digital resources as the means for providing information to their patrons, as more and more institutions provide digital surrogates to documents, graphics, sound and video recordings, how will we ensure that these resources will be available for the long term? Deteriorating storage media, technical obsolescence and legal issues are all factors that can make today's rich digital resources unavailable tomorrow. This workshop will explore the nature of
digital resources, the hazards that can render them useless and explore ways in which institutions are combating this problem. Topics to be covered include file formats, software, hardware; strategies used today, possible future strategies; and what you can do to ensure the near-term longevity of your digital resources. Attendees can earn CE credit hours for a fee of $15.00.

Cecilia Aros Hunter, South Texas Archives & Special Collections
James C. Jernigan Library, MSC 197
Texas A&M University-Kingsville
Kingsville, Texas 78363

To Register by phone please contact Cecilia Aros Hunter
361-593-4154 or FAX 361-593-2240

Mujerfest 2002, Mercedes Convention Center
El Rio Grande Valley, Tejas
May 31-June

Produced and organized by mujeres, attended by all, MUJERFEST will serve as a chance for mujeres to form alliances and provide a forum for women to perform. It is a conscious attempt to build links between mujeres; to establish a female-friendly atmosphere; to raise the status of mujer performers, not only in South Texas but throughout and to build links between women and women of color in different circles and communities.
http://Chicanastuff.com/mujerfe

Mujerfest 2002 is being directed by Noemi Martinez in El Valle, Tejas. Noemi is editor of the Chicana Writer Website, Chicana Stuff Tiendita, and recently conducted the first annual short story competition for unpublished Chicana writers.

Support, ideas and motivation stem from Bianca Ortiz, in California and Madeline Alviso in Washington State. As well as countless Chicanas, mujeres and people throughout. MUJERFEST 2002 will be held in South Texas and in Yakima County, Washington State, under the direction of Noemi Martinez and Madeline Alviso. naninenetl@hotmail.com

Corpus Christi is celebrating its sesquicentennial of incorporation this year. Henry Kinney is credited as the founder of Corpus Christi, 150 years ago. Numerous letters have appeared in our newspaper highlighting Henry Kinney. Thought I would share a letter that was published in today's Corpus Christi Caller. Letter to the editor is attached below. Mira Smithwick SagaCorpus@aol.com

Spanish Roots

I would like to set the record straight about Henry Kinney's land deal (Letters, Feb. 5). According to Virginia Taylor's "Index to Spanish and Mexican Land Grants," published by the Texas General Land Office, Enrique Villarreal was the original grantee of the 10-league "Rincon del Oso."

Villarreal conveyed one league to Henry Kinney in 1842. In 1847, before the Mexican War ended, Kinney had an agent "buy" eight leagues at auction in Matamoros. Villarreal's son then sold the last league to Kinney. Kinney's possession of "Rincon del Oso" has always been questionable, but the Texas Legislature in 1852 upheld his right to the land grant.

The first settlers of South Texas were Spanish citizens who were granted titles to land along the northern boundary of the Rio Grande starting in 1767.

Between 1767 and 1848 over 350 families of Hispanic descent settled the region between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande. Tens of thousands of their descendants still live in this region. We are a big part of this history. Ms. Dempsey and all the others who feel offended by our presence in South Texas will have to just sit back and listen to our history for once.
- - - -    Moises Canales
From Opinions Section - Letters to the Editor, Corpus Christi Caller, February 15, 2002:

                                               ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

Mira, It is absolutely necessary for us to begin at the very beginning of what would become Corpus Christ, Texas- its discovery. That happened on the day that the Pinzon brothers set eyes on the coast line. They gave the name to Corpus Christi. Granted, these first Spaniards were just sailing in their quest for new routes and discoveries, but all beginning of Corpus Christi should return to that discovery on the day of Corpus Christi, a feast day celebrated since about the 13th century in Europe.

Among the earliest Spaniards to establish ranches in the Corpus Christi area were two stalwart men, Carlos de la Garza and Blas Maria de la Garza who must be acknowledged. Perhaps their ranches- one called Carlos Ranch and the other Santa Petronila are now found to be too much beyond the edge of what is Corpus Christi to count. What these two men caused and enabled to continue, their beginnings of settlement, must be taken into account. These two men count so much in what would happen in the Corpus Christi area. We should return to beginnings to set a valid and a true record.
It is just remembering what must be acknowledged. Thanks, Maria Dellinger Tbdelling@aol.com

Mira Smithwick sent the Corpus Christi's anniversary webpage: http://www.tsha.utexas.edu/

From the TSHA's website:
Make your plans now to attend the 106th annual meeting of the TSHA on March 7-9, 2002, at the Omni Corpus Christi Hotel Bayfront. This will be our first meeting in Corpus Christi, and it coincides with the celebration of the city's sesquicentennial of incorporation. It was in 1839 that Henry Lawrence Kinney and his partner William P. Aubrey established a trading post on the west shore of Corpus Christi Bay, which had become a small village by the mid-1840s. General Zachary Taylor's army camped nearby in September 1845 as Texas prepared to join the union. (A beautiful new park has been designed for the site of the army's encampment and will soon be built.) The town became county seat of the newly formed Nueces County in 1846 and was first incorporated that year, but no public officials were elected and the incorporation was repealed. The city was finally reincorporated on February 16, 1852.

"Commemoration of Mexican-American War in limbo"
Extract from article by Neal Falgoust Corpus Christi Caller-Times http://www.caller.com/ccct/local_news/article/0,1641,CCCT_811_992477,00.html

Sometimes, historical interpretation can become a politically risky business. Community leaders in Corpus Christi learned that last month after a proposal to build a memorial to the Mexican-American War turned sour and led a multi-millionaire philanthropist to withdraw a $1 million gift. "I was against it because the people who put me in office are against it," said City Councilman Jesse Noyola, who now admits he supported the basic idea of building a memorial at Artesian Park downtown. [However]
"A lot of people just don't want to remember that [Mexican-American]," Noyola said.

"I knew it was going to ruffle some feathers," said Anthony Quiroz, assistant professor of history at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi. "The truth is there are still scars. For Mexican Americans, this war represents stealing their homeland."

On both sides of the border, there is a tendency for people to be selective in their interpretation of the war, he said. Americans saw the war as a manifestation of their destiny to spread influence across the continent. Mexicans saw it as a war of aggression. Groups on both sides agree that to close the chasm between those perceptions requires open dialogue between the two sides. "If you are going to commemorate the Mexican-American War, you need to bring both parties to agreement," said Mary Helen Salazar, president of the League of United Latin American Citizens .

Congressman Solomon Ortiz helped the group obtain more than $6 million in federal money for the 1,100-acre park. At a conference held during the dedication of the park in 1993, he said the omission of the war from the nation's collective memory had led to misunderstanding on both sides of the border.

Salazar, Noyola and others in the community agree that the proposal to build a memorial at Artesian Park lacked one major component - involvement from diverse groups in the city. And with a war that involves as much emotion as the Mexican-American War, community-wide support was the only way for it to survive.

Historic preservationists in Brownsville have begun tossing around an idea that would create a sort of South Texas heritage trail, which would include several of the war's battle sites. They are having a hard time finding leaders here willing to carry the banner, however.

When the movement to get official federal recognition for the park as a historic site began roughly 20 years ago, a small group of dissenters - perhaps a dozen people - opposed the idea on the grounds that it would reopen healed wounds.
But because the committee included participants from both sides, the critics quickly lost credibility.

Sent by Mira Smithwick and George Gause

Univision Online, Inc., a subsidiary of Univision Communications Inc. (NYSE: UVN) and General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM) today, February 20th, announced that Luis Antonio Franco is the first winner of "El Camino Hacia el Exito" (The Road to Success), a scholarship program acknowledging Hispanic high school students and college undergraduates nationwide for their outstanding academic achievement and community service. Javier Saralegui, President of Univision Online, said, "We are excited to co-sponsor scholarships for exceptional U.S. Hispanic students, helping them to achieve success through education. Univision.com is committed to our community and encourages academic excellence."

Univision.com and GM jointly selected Mr. Franco, a pre-med student at Texas A&M University, as the winner. His academic accomplishments include the National Spanish Honor Society, Tri Beta National Honor Society and a class ranking of 93rd percentile. These achievements, along with his work experience, extracurricular activities, awards and statement of goals, made him an excellent choice for the scholarship. The "El Camino Hacia el Exito" (The Road to Success) scholarship program will continue through June 2002, offering three more scholarships worth $5,000 each. Students will have the opportunity to apply for scholarships by accessing a questionnaire posted on the Aventuras del Camino minisite on Univision.com. The check was awarded at the Fernandez GMC-Pontiac-Buick dealership, in Dallas, Texas.
Univision Online Sent by Leonard Rodriguez

Gloria Candelaria website: http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~abel2479
Victoria, Texas Genealogical Sources S Sent by George Gause, ggause@panam.edu

"Catholic Archives of Texas (Austin)"

Dear George, At some point in the future the Catholic Archives of Texas will have to move because the Diocese of Austin's programs are expanding and the space will be needed. The Archives is NOT closed and will not be closed. The Catholic Archives of Texas is a program of the Texas Catholic Conference, in other words, all 15 bishops, and they have a commitment to maintaining it. Planning is already under way to greatly improve the status and physical plant of the CAT when it does move. Kinga is not a sister and she has not left CAT yet. She recently was appointed special collections director and university archivist at Rice and will be taking up the post in March. Her replacement has already been named. Susan Eason has been assistant archivist for a number of years now and in charge of the Knights of Columbus records collection, she is highly qualified for the position.

Kinga hasn't left the archives yet although her move to Rice has been announced in the Texas Catholic Historian, the society's newsletter. Please share the information with your list and know that I do appreciate your efforts to provide information to your friends and colleagues.

Regards, Frank de la Teja, Ph.D.
Professor of History, Southwest Texas State University
San Marcos, Texas 78666 512-245-2149
http://www.history.swt.edu/Full-Time-Faculty/DelaTeja/Homepage.htm

Sent by George Gause ggause@panam.edu

1850 U.S. Federal Census - Free Population Schedules for State of Texas

http://www.rootsweb.com/~txgenweb/census.htm
One of the project goals of The TXGenWeb Project is to have the entire 1850 census "online" and available to all free of charge. Here you will find links to the counties that have currently been transcribed. If you know of transcriptions "online" that are not listed here please send them to Trey Holt. If you are interested in participating in transcribing please visit The USGenWeb Census1850
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Index to Military Rolls of the Republic of Texas, 1835-1845

Example Muster Roll http://www.mindspring.com/~dmaxey/home.htm
And: Name Index to Military Bounty and Donation Land Grants of Texas, H. David Maxey 1999
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Description of Manuscript Collections at Stephen F. Austin State University

Many collections of family and personal papers found in the ETRC offer sources for study of a variety of topics such as early agriculture, economic conditions of nineteenth century Texas, daily life as related in diaries and letters, the Civil War, the role of women in nineteenth and twentieth century Texas, family relationships, and family history. Insight into business and commercial activities may also be gained by consulting collections of personal and family papers as well as corporate manuscripts housed in the East Texas Research Center . A variety of organizations have donated records including historical societies, women's clubs, and civic groups. The collections have finding aids available to assist researchers in their use.

Example: http://libweb.sfasu.edu/etrc/collect/manscrpt/PERSONAL/Herrera/Hermain.htm

Herrera Family Papers

The family name of Herrera first appears on the Spanish census records for Nacogdoches in 1806. Miguel and Manuel Herrera, who are listed as heads of households in the 1830 census, both participated in the Cordova Rebellion of 1838 against the Republic of Texas.

Jose Herrera, born about 1834, was a farmer. He fought in the Civil War in Company B of the 3rd Brigade of the Texas State Troops. His wife's name was Manuela and they had at least two daughters. In 1871 Jose received a land grant for 160 acres, signed by Gov. Richard Bennett Hubbard, for a tract on the "Mountain" [also called Cherry Ridge] 13-1/2 miles East of Nacogdoches.

Manuel Herrera, born Oct. 17, 1877, perhaps a son or grandson of Jose, continued to hold land in the grant. He married Mandy Cordova, who was born on Jan. 1, 1888, and they had one son, Robert, and six daughters: Beulah (m. Falcon), Claudia, Eulah (m. Y'Barbo), Cora (m. Y'Barbo), and two others who died before their father passed away. Mandy Herrera died on May 19, 1932 and Manuel, after suffering from paralysis for the last ten years of his life, died in Chireno on Sept. 24, 1943.

Robert Herrera was born on Feb 10, 1914. A farmer, he married Verna Pascal [?] on June 12, 1937. Their children included Betty R. (m. McClelland) and Manuel. Robert was a resident of Martinsville when he died in a Galveston hospital on June 16, 1967.

The Herrera Family Papers include the original land grant signed by Gov. Hubbard, and fifteen original deeds of sale, mostly concerning portions of the original grant, dated 1886 to 1965. Also included are family photographs, account books, and a copy of the will of Marvin and Beulah Herrera Falcon. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Catholic Archives of Texas, http://www.onr.com/user/cat/
1600 N. Congress, Austin, Texas Phone: 512/476-6296 Fax: 512/476-3715 E-mail: cat@onr.com
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Volkswagen Plans Expansion
After threatening to cut its investment in Mexico after losing a bitter labor dispute last summer, Volkswagen has decided to proceed with expansion plans at it s Puebla complex.

The German auto make is continuing with a $1-billion, five-year plan to bolster its only North American manufacturing facility, despite having said in September that is enthusiasm for Mexico hads dimmed after a 19-day strike that shuttered operations and subsequent 14.7% increase in wages and benefits.

Cars and trucks made in Mexico last year totaled 1,817,807 units, off 3.8% from 2000. About three-quarters of all Mexican-built vehicles are exporeted. Mexican domestic sales, meanwhile rose 7.6% to 918,835 units.
Extract from article by Cris Kraul, L.A. Times, 1-2-02

Borderland Projects Ahead
President Vicente Fox unveiled a plan to develop Mexico's 2,000-mile northern border. Fox's plan calls for a network of government sectors that will oversee more than 50 programs. Fox said the border's ´´ human capital is precisely what can give us a competitive advantage."
OC Register 2-14-02

Mexico City to be Restored
Mexico City officials revealed the start of their plan to restore the city's 700-year-old historic
district- not just by removing vendors who crowd the sidewalks but by replacing the sidewalks as well. The plan will focus on a 30-block area surrounding the former Convent, the remains of which still exist scattered among more-modern buildings. the area chosen for the $50 million first stage of the restoration covers about one-quarter of the 2-square-mile downtown district, which was found in1325 by the Aztecs and occupied in 1521 by the Spanish conquerors.
OC Register 2-14-02

Mexico Ends Free Land Practice
President Vicente Fox's administration has declared an end to the 85-year old practice of making land grants to the poor, a program that embodied the spirit of the Mexican Revolution but was rife with corruption and property disputes. Mexico's 1917 constitution guaranteed land to all citizens who could prove they were poor, landless and bona fide members of certain communities. With varying degrees of commitment, Mexican president thereafter redistributed land, which frequently had been under the control of huge estates.

The agrarian reform movement, which had faded in recent decades, transferred more than half of Mexico's arable land to the indigenous and poor, most of them organized into communal groups called ejidos.. About 30,000 such communal groups exist today, and there is little unoccupied land left to redistribute. Agrarian Reform Secretary Maria Teresa Herrera Tello said that redistribution of land had failed to solve rural poverty and that the government must redirect efforts into making farming more productive.

Extracts from article by Cris Kraul, Times staff writer, L.A. Times, pg. A3, 1-31-02

Genealogy & Directory Resources: http://home.att.net/~Local_Catholic/Catholic-Mexico.htm
Search for a specific geographic location. Local Catholic Church History and Ancestors
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Mexico Research Groups with Links: http://www.tamaulipas.gob.mx/atencion.htm
Editor's note: Archival collections from all the states in Mexico. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Photos and brief biography for Mexican historical leaders: Titulares de la S.D.N:
http://www.sedena.gob.mx/sdn/fun_sdn/titulares.html Sent by Johanna de Soto

Plutarco Elias Calles
Benjamin G. Hill
Enrique Estrada Reynoso
Francisco R. Serrano
Joaquin Amaro Dominguez
Pablo Quiroga Escamilla
Lazaro Cardenas del Rio
Andres Figueroa Figueroa
Manuel Avila Camacho
Pablo E. Macias Valenzuela

Francisco L. Urquizo Benavides
Gilberto R. Limon Marquez
Matias Ramos Santos
Agustin Olachea Aviles
Marcelino Garcia Barragan
Hermenegildo Cuenca Diaz
Felix Galvan Lopez
Juan Arevalo Gardoqui
Antonio Riviello Bazan
Enrique Cervantes Aguirre

                              A Journey of Family Discovery in Guadalajara and Michoacan
                                                                           by
                                     Patricia A. Navarrette-Larson   tido@execpc.com

Well, I have finally caught my breath after returning from my trip. I am not sure where to start! The ENTIRE trip was wonderful, just one SMALL (?) problem. I had this trip planned perfectly for my Aunt and I, everything to a tee! HOWEVER, when we were in Houston waiting to board the plane for Guadalajara and I took out my "birth certificate" I found that I had packed my "marriage license"! Oh Mimi, I almost started to cry! When we went to Ixtapa in 2000, we had to have our marriage license because of the kids. Believe me, the documents look EXACTLY the same, I just did not read which one I pulled. Believe it or not, they actually let me pass. But did I ever get the questions trying to get back into the country! I sure learned a good lesson.

The town of El Valle only has a population of about 2000, but, the majority of those people also reside in either Chicago or CA, so it is down to about 200 the majority of the time. However, the town was packed during my visit due to the fiesta.

The drive from Guadalajara to El Valle de Guadalupe was almost three hours. I did not mind whatsoever, seeing so much of Jalisco and Michoacan was such a treat. I had to keep pinching myself to know that I was really THERE!

Our first evening my aunt and I just relaxed at our host cousin's home. It was fun "girl talking", sipping tea and tasting sweet bread from Chilchota. I must say, EVERY morning I was up before the sun, standing outside taking in the scenery. It was always just me and the moon, and of course listening to everybody's dogs and roosters!

The word had spread that I was coming to El Valle...the curious prima from the United States! If you are in a hurry, El Valle is NOT the place to be. The entire town is laid back and you cannot walk ten feet on the streets without saying good morning and stopping to chat. Those chats
never failed to then realize you were talking to a relative! I was able to "hold my own" at least with small talk and introducing myself in Espanol. But, I must keep on working with my language lessons.

I have so many highlights in my mind......Meeting my 90 year old cousin Consuelo for the very first time! We have been corresponding for about 2 years and finally being able to give her the hug and kiss that has been waiting for her was wonderful. I also threw Consuelo a little birthday party........... her first one ever!!!! I brought many gifts from relatives from home. I came up with the ideal gift for her after our first meeting. When I saw my sweet little prima was using a broken broom handle
for a cane, I did not hesitate one minute to travel the 30 minutes to Zamora to buy her a real cane. She cried and then told me in Espanol, "God should give you the sky." Imagine the tears I shed! It was also the chance in a lifetime to meet my great aunts (sister's of my late beloved grandmother). Not much small talk here...just lots of love and hugs!

I found the cemetery to be very beautiful also. I spent much time there taking notes and wishing I would have gone YEARS ago to meet my family instead of placing flowers at their graves.

One of my most treasured memories will be meeting my father's cousin Ricardo. We met him by chance while he was working in the field by the cemetery. My aunt was overwhelmed seeing him for the first time in 52 years! Ricardo and my father were close as children. They formed a wonderful relationship when my father lived in El Valle for several months when they were children. Ricardo also took the trip to Milwaukee when he was young and was amazed at a certain thing we have here....it is called...snow! When Ricardo found that I was my father's daughter, he looked at me and said, "You have your father's eyes"!!!! That brought tears to my eyes.

I guess I stuck out like a "tourist" in El Valle!! Never leaving the house without my video and still cameras and of course, ALL my genealogy sheets, and more. We laughed until we cried while visiting an elderly cousin....I was sitting in the living room and when she walked in she said..."who is
the white girl"!!!! BOY, little did she know, "the white girl has the same blood"!!! LOL!! This particular cousin was adorable, a little elderly woman who loved sitting next to me and staring at me! I found it to be so cute, I would just hold her hand!

We were able to travel to Chilchota on our second day there. THIS was my dream come true, as this is where all the events took place, marriages, baptisms, etc. Believe it or not, we parked the car RIGHT in from of the Santiago Church. Mimi, this is where my g-g-g- grandparents, Camilo Valdez and Juana Maria Herrera, were married on May 17, 1857! It was hard to control my emotions while I stood at the alter having my photo taken. I did not want to leave the church! I am not sure what I thought was going to happen while I was there, I just felt such a connection, I did not want to let that go!

We also went to Zamora for a HUGE surprise visit. My aunt wanted to see her cousins Rosalia and Sara, whom she last saw about 50 years ago! I will never forget the look on Rosalia's face while she came down the stairs and looked at my aunt Esperanza. The tears were many and it took sometime
before they let each other go. Then she found out that I was her cousin Roberto's daughter and it started all over again!!

I wish I could understand why the showing of love and emotion is so different in Mexico. Being in such small places and having total contact with your family, you just never lose that connection. I for one have NEVER been afraid to show my love for my family, from my children all the way to my distant cousins. How I wish everybody could feel this emotion. The time I spent in El Valle gave me a different outlook on my life and my surroundings. I have always appreciated what I have in life,
but now I appreciate everything even more. It breaks my heart to think there are SO many people out there who have not had the chance to feel this emotion.

Remember the Navarrete/Belmontes family reunion of August 2001, and the attendance of 200? Well, I now must find a larger park to hold the 2003 reunion, my list keeps growing and should have over 300 people at this one! Oh Mimi, if together we could just "spread the word". FIND YOUR
FAMILY! Embrace them, share life with them. We only live once and don't let this experience pass you by! My children are too young right now to totally comprehend what their Mom is doing. All the hours I spend at the computer, the research center, calling relatives, sending out birthday cards, reproducing photos for family all over the country. First and foremost, they are VERY patient with my passion, as well as my wonderful husband. I know in their adult years they will look back and say, WOW, look what Mom has done!

My travel partner, Aunt Esperanza Me and my beloved 90-year old My cousins, Raul Duarte and
and Aunt Esperanza cousin, Consuelo Navarette Ricardo Navarette-Oropeza

Zacatecas Archives of Juchipila: http://www.logicnet.com.mx/~zac450/archjuch.html

Este repositorio, en su momento, debió reunir una cantidad mucho mayor de documentos que los integrados al presente inventario. Por diversas causas fue menguando el fondo parroquial hasta nuestros días, hasta quedar integrado por documentos que, por su singularidad, son valiosos e importantes para la historia regional, pero con lagunas importantes sobre todo para la historia demográfica.

Sin duda que la importancia económica y poblacional de la región, durante el período colonial y el siglo XIX, a través de la alcaldía mayor y la parroquia, produjo una gran cantidad de documentos en un período de casi 400 años, pero son pocos los que han llegado hasta nuestros días.

A pesar de esa situación, este archivo ofrece elementos muy importantes que, complementados en otros de la región y en repositorios más amplios, como el del Arzobispado o la Audiencia de Guadalajara, brindan un excelente material para el trabajo del historiador. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Pre-Hispanic 'Pelota' Survives

HispanicOnline: Inter Press Service (IPS/IMS) - 1-29-02

MEXICO CITY, Feb 2 (IPS) - Mexican archaeologists have discovered pre-Hispanic ruins in the capital and in the states of Chiapas and Durango of courts used for playing 'pelota' (ball), a practice whose significance remains in dispute but which is being revived by a national sports federation.

The National Institute of Anthropology and History earlier this month reported a new discovery of pelota court ruins alongside elements that would seem to link the "sport" to human sacrifices and ceremonies to honor the fertility goddesses.

In the northwestern state of Durango, archaeologists found the ruins of a pelota court, like those found at the same time in the southern state of Chiapas, where vestiges of the structure were discovered underneath buildings that are in the process of being remodeled.

More than 1,000 pre-Hispanic pelota courts have been uncovered in Mexico, proving that it was a widespread practice among the Mayan and Aztec cultures.

Based on the archaeological evidence, the game was popular prior to the Spanish Conquistadors' arrival in the Americas among all cultures located between what is now Honduras and the southern United States, an area that holds more than 1,500 pelota courts.

Meanwhile, the Federation of Autonomous and Traditional Sports is attempting to revive the practice and proposes to organize a national conference of players, recognizing that the cultural significance of pelota has undergone profound change.

"We are going to organize a national gathering of pelota players this year because we want to give this cultural practice greater exposure," Alida Zurita, president of the Federation, told IPS.

Peasant farmers from the northern state of Sinaloa have been playing the ancient game for decades, and in recent years city teams have sprung up in that region.

But the precise meaning of the game in the pre-Hispanic era remains the subject of debate. Some experts believe it was related to fertility, war and the search for balance between opposites.

For others, it was a recreational sport in which the people ignored differences in social status and gave loose rein to amusement and gambling.

The pelota courts are spaces that form an "I" or "T", with two lateral walls from which protrudes a vertical ring or arc, the objective being to pass a hard rubber ball through the ring.

The players, with five to a team, moved the ball using their hips, knees and elbows, on which they wore protective pads.

Melesio Piña, spokesman for the Mexican Track and Field Federation and promoter of programs aimed at reviving pelota, commented that it is not a mere sport, because it involves sacred elements.

Archaeological research suggests that people filled the areas around the court as spectators, just as they did for important ceremonies. The sites were carefully prepared, and are found in what were the sacred cities of the Aztecs and the Mayans.

The main court was always located in the political center of the city, with other minor courts constructed in the populous areas or near the markets.

The players, who wore loincloths and a belt made from deerskin, in addition to the protective pads, were considered warriors, and those who won the game were sacrificed to the gods.

"The amazing thing about the pre-Hispanic sport was its philosophical significance. The Mayans, for example, represented good and evil in the game, or the 'ulama', that is, day and night. The game was conceived as an entertainment and amusement of the gods," said Piña.

"In Meso-America, the victor was the fortunate one, because it was believed that he would be sent as the people's messenger to the gods, or that the gods would descend to gather up the sacrificed hero," he said. (END/IPS/LA/CR AE/TRA-SO LD/DC/MJ/02)

FANTASTIC. . The Genealogy of Mexico: http://members.tripod.com/~GaryFelix/index1.htm#Conq
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Veinte Mil Escrituras Notariales Coloniales

Hi, Mimi....Leon Hernandez in Puerto Vallarta forwarded this message to me regarding a great project on the notary records in Mexico City. You can contact him directly if you have any questions. He speaks English....in fact he's from California. I mentioned to him that this would be good to include in Somos Primos and he gave the okay. Your prima, Mary Lou Montagna nandin@att.net

León Hernández Jaime:

Con gusto le puedo informar que el Seminario de Documentación e Historia Novohispana, que dirijo, ha logrado completar un catálogo de cerca de veinte mil escrituras notariales coloniales, el cual será publicado en cuatro discos compactos.

El primer volumen que saldrá a la venta dentro de un par de meses, comprende más de seis mil seiscientas escrituras procedentes de los libros de protocolos de los escribanos Gaspar Calderón (1554-1555) y Antonio Alonso (1557-1581), que sucesivamente estuvieron al frente de una de las
escribanías más antiguas que tenía la ciudad.

El segundo volumen, cuya edición se encuentra muy avanzada, cuenta con más de nueve mil extractos de las escrituras que se conservan de Juan Pérez de Rivera (1582-1631), quien ocupó el cargo después de la renuncia de Antonio Alonso, y las de su sucesor y sobrino, Juan Pérez de Rivera Cáceres (1632-1653), con lo cual cubrimos más de cien años de trabajo de una de las
primeras escribanías que tuviera la ciudad de México. Adicionalmente presentamos los libros de protocolos de un tercer Juan Pérez de Rivera, que fue sobrino y primo respectivamente de los dos anteriores y se desempeñó como escribano público de provincia de 1611 a 1621.

El tercer volumen, que se encuentra en fase de edición, reunirá una colección de libros de protocolos de diferentes escribanos reales de los siglos XVI y XVII: Antonio del Águila (1579), Luis de Aguilera (1598), Martín Alonso (1564-1583), Diego de Ayala (1551-1553), Luis de Basurto
(1589-1594), Juan de Lerín Caballero (1689) y Cristóbal Ramírez (1596) cuyos documentos, por ser tan escasos, se han reunido en un solo volumen. Y el cuarto volumen, actualmente en fase de catalogación, presentará la información documental contenida en los ocho primeros libros (1591-1614), de los diecinueve que se conservan de Andrés Moreno, quien fuera escribano
público de la ciudad de México de 1591 a 1640.

Todavía no se cuanto costará cada CD, pero dado que será publicado por la UNAM, creo que tendrá un precio muy accesible. Agradezco su interés por el trabajo que estamos desarrollando y me pongo a sus ordenes para cualquier duda que tenga.

Atentamente, Ivonne Mijares.

Records of El Potosí Mining Company, Prepared by the Mexican Archives Project, April 1995

Benson Latin American Collection, Rare Books and Manuscripts
http://www.lib.utexas.edu/benson/Mex_Archives/Potosi_Mining.html
Introduction: The Records of El Potosí Mining Company were purchased by the Benson Latin American Collection on April 11, 1985, from Maggie Lambeth Books of San Antonio, Texas. The records were described by the Benson's Mexican Archives Project in April 1995. The collection's physical extent is ten inches. Its materials are in English; their bulk dates are 1931-1939.
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Survey of Mexican Inquisition Documents at The Bancroft Library
http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/BANC/banccoll/inqfaid.html

Of the accused, 48 are men, 11 are women; 20 are members of the clergy (including one woman). Six are accused of practicing Judaism, one of Lutheranism, 28 of sexual offenses, and 13 of witchcraft or superstition. Each line gives the date and place of the trial, the number of leaves in the trial record, the name of the accused, and the accusation. Below is an example of how the graph is set up.

Date Place No. of leaves Name Accusation
1593 Guadalajara 131 Miguel Redelic alias Miguel Alemán suspicion of being a Lutheran
1594 Mexico City 698 Manuel de Lucena practicing Judaism
1595 Mexico City 332 Leonor de Carvajal practicing Judaism
1595 Mexico City 400 Isabel de Carvajal heresy and practicing Judaism

Mexico Research Guide
http://www.familysearch.org/Eng/Search/rg/guide/Mexico30.asp

Editor's Note: This is wonderful. It is a step by step outline to do research in Mexico. The table of contents has links to each research item. Appendix B lists all the State Civil Registration Offices Addresses. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Zacatecas Historical Records http://www.umich.edu/~urecord The University of Michigan

Clements gives historic papers to Mexico, Volume 57, Number 18
By Kate Kellogg, News and Information Services, January 28, 2002

The William L. Clements Library has given a major manuscript collection—the original treasury records of the Mexican state of Zacatecas—to the Zacatecas campus of the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education.

Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari accepted the gift from Clements Library Director John C. Dann May 27 in a private ceremony at the Gerald R. Ford Library.

Salinas was on campus to deliver the William E. Simon Lecture sponsored by the Gerald R. Ford Foundation, and received an honorary degree.

The collection, which will be housed in the Manuel Sescosse Library on the Zaca tecas campus, includes nearly 40,000 historical documents worth approximately $250,000, according to Dann.

The library purchased the documents from a Mexican book dealer for $10,000 in 1951 and legally exported them to the United States. Thus, the U-M is effectively returning the documents to their appropriate home, Dann said.

“This very complete historical collection dates from the 16th through the 19th centuries and is much more than a set of financial records,” he said. “Zacatecas was the center of Mexico’s silver-mining industry, a source of great wealth for Mexico during that period. The collection provides information on mining, the Indians who lived in Zacatecas, local history and genealogy.”

Scholars have used the collection for a variety of purposes including dissertation research, Dann added. “But I’ve always felt the Zacatecas Papers belonged in Zacatecas. The visit of President Salinas provided a good occasion for us to officially present the papers as a gift to his country.”

Mexico is rightfully sensitive about its historical artifacts because so many have gone out of the country to museums and private collections, Dann said. “Mexican scholars consider the return of these papers a great triumph.”

The decision to return the Zacatecas Papers resulted from Dann’s communication with Mexican scholars, including Rafael Rangel Sostmann, rector of the Monterrey Institute, and Manuel Sescosse Varela, president of the Society of Friends of Zacatecas Sent by Johanna de Soto

Franciscan friars replace the traditional robe

St. Francis founded his order of "poor friars" in the hillside town of Assisi, Italy nearly 800 years ago. the life of poverty was defined by the plain brown robe he chose to wear. Today, Franciscan monks are recognizable around the world for similar outfits. But one branch has decided to buy some fancy new frocks, and not everyone is pleased.

A small order, the Third Order Regular in Assisi, has selected a prototype made of fine gray wool that cost $140 apiece. The habit comes with two front pockets - for cell phones or anything else - as well as the traditional rope belt tied at the waist and knotted three times.

Rev. Lino Temperini, head of the 50-member Third Order Regular says the designs are perfectly in line with what St. Francis meant for his followers. Temperini has published a booklet to make his case. O.C. Register, 12-25-01

NOVICA http://www.NOVICA.com

Pat Batista sent the following:
I've discovered Internet shopping! I've had great fun with the Novica site - it is tied in with National Geographic, and they have a conglomeration of things from all around the world. It is possible to order from artists in quite remote regions which makes it even more interesting. They usually
include a personal note to you and some bio material. I've gotten some beautiful jewelry, dishes - and just yesterday got my order of ceramic angels from Peru - they are about 6" high and all playing different musical instruments - very cute.

Editor's note: I got online and was intrigued with the excellent photo-copies of the items, and the detailed information on both the art object and the artist. Pat is a long-time friend of 40 plus years. She always been interested in the arts and has served as a docent at the Los Angeles Folk Art Museum. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Registros de nacimiento de la provincia de Burgos, Spain Burgos Province Birth Records
http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Senate/4593/burgos.html

Almost all of the parish archives in the Burgos province have been collected and stored at Archive of the Bishopric, located in the city of Burgos. The director of the Archive, D. Matías Vicario Santamaría, has made an excellent job cataloguing the 20,000+ documents. The result of this job is a book entitled "Censo-guía de los archivos parroquiales de la Diócesis de Burgos", where he lists (town by town) the documents existing both in the Archive of the Bishopric as well as in those parishes which still keep the documents at their respective towns.

Using the information in the book, I have extracted the date in which the birth records start for each town in the province of Burgos:

Towns whose birth records are kept at the Archive of the Bishopric
Towns whose birth records are still kept at the parish
Towns whose birth records have disappeared, but other vital records exist at the Archive of the Bishopric.
Towns whose archives have disappeared Sent by Johanna de Soto

The Basque Genealogy Homepage: http://home.earthlink.net/%7Efybarra/

Susan Ybarra family tree contains records for more than 17,000 individuals and includes more than 300 surnames. Susan is a professional genealogist and has resources which may be purchased.

H-LatAm: http://www2.h-net.msu.edu/~latam/

International forum for the scholarly discussion of Latin American History.
Member of the H-Net Humanities & Social Sciences Online initiative
Affiliated with the Conference On Latin American History (CLAH). Sent by Johanna de Soto

International Civic Heraldry: http://www.ngw.nl/indexgb.htm

There is no information about individual families nor genealogical data
Information is about the history of countries, states, towns, provinces. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Spanish Research site http://www.library.ucsb.edu/subj/spanish.html Great information.

E-libro.net
Nueva plataforma para las bibliotecas www.ebrary.comä la plataforma que ahora tiene contenidos en español. Las más importantes universidades de América Latina y España están poniendo sus contenidos en la plataforma ebrary, que tiene una versión en castellano: www.E-libro.net.
Ejemplo de lo que hacemos: http://stanford.ebrary.com   editor@e-libro.net
                                                                                                           Sent by Johanna de Soto

Lantin American Links: http://www.stanford.edu/group/las/lalinks.htm

Grijalva Surname and History Information: http://www.lanzadera.com/grijalba
Translation by Don Garate dtgarate@theriver.com of information found on this site.
Sent by Eddie Grijalva. grijalvaet1@cs.com

Ancient Era: In our town, what we know is of the Celtic Age. In the archaeological museum is a grinding stone found in Carrecampo. Some fragments of sealed ceramics are preserved from the Roman Era as well as some tegulas?? and a grinding wheel. A village possibly existed in the latter part of that era, in the vicinity of the terminus of the main highway that ran as far as the town of Sasamón (called Segisama by the Romans). Two millet mills are preserved in lower Padilla. We have to information from the Visgoth Age.

Middle Age: Grijalba, as an entity, came into existence in the re-population surge during the Age of the Counts. An account by Don Blas Treceño, who was a scribe from the area at the end of the 17th century attributed its founding to the specific count, Fernán Gonzáles. The first written mention of the existence of Grijalba is in the year 999. In the year 1000 Count Sanch Garcés, grandson of Fernán Gonzáles, made a donation to the Abbey of San Pedro de Cervatos at various places in favor of his son being buried in the said monastery. It is here that the inventory of the church of San Juan, in Grijalba, and its goods is located. The church of which this speaks disappeared in the 18th century.

The name Grijalba is the result of the contraction of two Latis words, "ecclesia alba" (white church). Surely this name has served as a reference to certain towns, domestic and foreign, to identify and refer to them for the same primitive reason as our location. However, since that time, none of the actual churches have carried that name.

The register of San Miguel in Villamayor de Treviño contains various documents (pious donations, sales, etc.) from the years 1166 to 1223.

Luciano Serrano, in his Diplomatic Collection of San Salvador del Moral, from the beginning of the present century, also mentions Grijalba. From him we know that the hospital order of San Juan de Jerusalén had goods in Grijalba. In 1811 the prior renounced the said estate and gave it to Pedro Rodríguez and his wife in payment for their services provided to that institution in the Holy Land.

The Lordship of Grijalba had great princes, the last of whom was Count Sancho, son of Alfonso XI and brother of Kings Don Pedro and Don Enrique II.

There was a hospital in Grijalba, administered anciently by the parish, the mayor, and the councilman. This is logical because a branch of the road to Compostela passed through here and frequent hospitals and hospices for the service of the pilgrams were stationed along it.

The Register of Behetrías (towns whose inhabitants were not subject to any Lord) de Castilla (from the 13th to the 14th centuries) lists Grijalba. Being a behetría, at that time, means it was sufficiently liberated and advanced socially. Those who lived in a behetría were small land owners. It [Grijalba] was integrated into the "sheep walk" (merindad) of Castrojeriz.

WE know of the existence of various monasteries, churches, and hermitages in Grijalba, that were built during the time of the Middle Ages, very probably in the romantic style: San Juan (grounded in the Abbey of Cervatos); San Millan (that fell under the jurisdiction of the Monastery of San Andres de Arroyo); San Pantaleón; San Roque; San Lorenzo; San Miguel; Santa Lucía; and San Llorente. None of these are still standing today.

The Gothic church of Santa María de los Reyes is of the 13th and 14th centuries, with the exception of the choir loft, the sacristy, and the cloister, all of which are gone today. They were built in the 15th century. These additions and the glass windows possibly have their origin in some noble families who, at that time, possessed the Lordship of Grijalba. Among these was Don Luis Herrera, who was the brother of Luis de Herrera, conquerer of the Canary Islands.

Modern Age: From documents preserved in the diocese archive we know that Grijalba was incorporated by the archpresbyter of Villasandino and had two parish churches; Santa María and San Miguel. The first baptisms, marriages, burials, and accounts were recorded in the last quarter of the 16th century. The most ancient baptism and burial carry the date of 1574. The book of marriages begins in 1586. The accounts of the parish or book of works commences in 1590.

We need to highlight two people from these registers from the 17th century who were born here and are important to Grijalba: Don Francisco and Don Antonio Juaréz de la Lastra. Francisco became the chaplain of King Charles II. At the petition of Antonio, priest of Grijalba and commissary of the Holy Office [of the Inquisition] exemption was procured for our town from the jurisdiction of the Governor of Burgos and Castrojerez. They also obtained a declaration from Charles II designating Grijalba as a "villa" with full jurisdiction. In 1683 the harvest was very bad. Because of the terribel drought neither grain nor wine was harvested. The town was at the point of being lost and many people died from lack of food. The council borrowed 18,000 ducats in revenue and 1800 bushes of bread from Huelgas and San Andres de Arroyo.

On the tax list of the Marqués de Ensenada (1752), which was administered by the exchequer of King Ferdinand VI, it appears that Grijalba cultivated barley, wheat, rye, vetch, oats, legumes, and herbs. Three mills operated on the Odra River. There were 71 houses of which one was a tavern/inn. Professionally, the population had the following occupations: two surgeons, one brick mason, one iron smith, one weaver, a sacristan and organist, a primary school teacher, a lands officer, an overseer of the cattle, four poor people, five beneficiaries or priests, 27 laborers, four sons of laborers over the age of 33, and three day laborers or servants. There were approximately 300 inhabitans in total. 32 head of cattle were recorded in the census, 33 young female donkeys, 3 mares and a colt, 844 ewes, lambs, and weathers.

Contemporary Age: The contract for the work on the church, San Miguel, was let in 1801 and it was completed in 1804. The clock was installed in 1809. It does not appear that the war of independence affected our town. We have no indication that there were French troops in our territory, although there were English troops.

In Madoz's Dictionary of 1847, we are told that Grijalba had 100 houses, the town hall, a beautiful edifice for the jail, a primary school attended by 80 students, a parochial church served by a parish priest, and a chapel called San Miguel, 26 households and 205 inhabitants.

Statistics completed by the diocese in 1858 assigned 75 households and 315 souls to Grijalba.
In 1875 the book of enrollment for the church lists 436 inhabitants.
In 1900 the number of inhabitants was 412. By 1925 that had grown to 497 persons.
There were 433 inhabitants in 1950. Departure from here, motivated by emigration, started the decline in population of the town. It dropped to 276 residents in 1970. In 1980 it fell to 181 and stood at 140 in 1996.

Some Facts From Our Century:

In 1916, the highway that connects the towns of Melgar and Villadiego was begun
Electric lighting was installed in 1919. It functioned first by taking current from mill center. Afterwards the supply contract was given to the Palentina?? of Electricity.
Simón Bus Enterprises began to travel as far as Burgos in 1927.

Work on land parcel distribution started in 1961, which began the formation of the Nuestra Señora de los Reyes Cooperative and the domestic association, "San Isidro."

The first public telephone, attached to the Sasamón exchange, was installed in 1963. An automatic telephone was installed in 1976.
1975 saw the installation of city water and the establishment of the provisions and sewer systems.
Between 1980 and 1999 projects for paving the streets were expanded.
The parochial church of Santa María de los Reyes was declared a national monument in 1983.

In 1985, because the it was about to fall into ruins, the cloister was put in order. In 1988 through emergency assistance from the Assembly of Castilla and León, the church was re-opened.

The Cultural Center was inaugurated in 1987 on ground that resulted from the demolition of the ancient municipal edifice that had housed the town hall and school.

From 1984 to 1986 the town government planted 4000 black poplars on the lands of Grijalba.
Telephones were installed in individual homes in 1993.
The Social Center was constructed in 1994.

Researching in Spain: http://www.iespana.es
This is a not specifically a researching website, but does have a chat service.

History of Inter-nation Migration to Latin America: http://www.let.leidenuniv.nl/history/migration/chapter53.html#3

Description of the migration movement
Causes of migration
Consequences of migration
Reactions on migration Sent by Johanna de Soto

Internet y la Historia de España
Spanish language web site. Information and links for doing research in Spanish Archives. María Cruz Rubio Liniers, María del Rosario Ruiz Franco, Rosario de Andrés Verdú^* y Jaime Bustelo Tortella

Spanish Presidios http://webserver1.oneonta.edu/faculty/jacksorh/spanishpresidios/sld001.htm
Sent by Johanna de Soto

Anillo de Genealogía Hispana http://www.elanillo.com/recursos.htm
Hundreds of links to Spanish genealogical sites. Sent by Johanna de Soto

Mythical Spanish Past: http://teachingcollege.com/courses/hist140/Slide%20shows/Spain%20and%20Mexico

Spanish Resources: http://polyglot.lss.wisc.edu/lss/lang/spanish.html

This is a collection of links to a great variety of cultural, historical, and artistic sites primarily focused on all areas of Spain, South and Central America. Literature, music, food, history, geography, magazines, newspapers, etc. Sent by Johanna de Soto

World-Wide Genealogy Resources: http://www.genhomepage.com/world.html
It lists choice web site for researching in different countries. Sent by Johanna de Soto

SPANISH PATRIOTS OF THE PHILIPPINES IN SPAIN’S 1779-1783
WAR WITH ENGLAND – DURING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
by
Granville W. Hough © 2002
gwhough@earthlink.net

Spain was extremely sensitive about Manila and the Philippine Islands because Manila was the anchorage of the treasure galleons moving the benefits of Spain’s Far Eastern trade to Acapulco, thence to Veracruz, thence to Havana, and on to Spain. During the Seven Years War ending in
1763, England had captured both Manila and Havana, the two ports which were keys to Spain’s overseas wealth. Spain could not allow these cities to be lost again. When it became clear there was to be another war with England, Spain began reinforcing Manila and the Philippines with soldiers, money for fortifications, and people and resources for shipbuilding at Manila.

The resources for the San Blas Naval Department, which had been built to support California, were shifted to the support of Manila, and California was limited to land support for almost two years. The first ship to leave San Blas for Manila in 1779 was the packetboat San Carlos soon followed by the second ship, the packetboat Príncipe. Another which moved was the frigate Princesa in 1780, but it returned in 1781 Within two years, new ships which had been built in Manila began to come back to San Blas as replacements, including the Aránzazu in 1780 and the San Carlos ( El Filipino). Names of some officers known to have been available to make the trips to Manila are known and are shown below. Only a few individual sailors are named; however, some of the probable mariners are known based on their prior or subsequent service on these ships. These are included in the compilation below. Names of those who manned the Manila Naval Department have not been recovered.

In 1780, a picket of 100 soldiers was sent from Mexico to help defend the City of Manila. Others were taken from veteran regiments in Mexico for a total of 400. Still other soldiers were recruited in the Philippines. We have not found lists of these and other soldiers for the war period, but we do have some of the key persons in the units in the Philippines after the war. There seems to have been seven units assigned for the period 1788-1801, but given different titles for different years;

(1) Regimiento de Infanteria del Rey;
(2) Real Cuerpo del Artilleria/Plaza de Manila/Regimiento Fijo de la Plaza del Manila;
(3) Battalón del Real Príncipe/Battalón de Milicias del Real Príncipe;
(4) Escuadron de Dragones del Luzón;
(5) Compañia de Malavares/Compañia Veterana de Infanteria del Malavares;
(6) Plaza de Cavite; and
(7) the Fuerza de Santiago/Real Fuerza de Santiago.
The key persons from these units include many cadets, too young to have served during wartime, but likely sons of persons who did so serve. Also, wartime service was not necessarily in the Philippines. (Legajo 7268, LDS film 1156332).

Rafael María de Aguilar y Ponce de Leon ( - 8 Aug 1806, Philippines). Fernandez:114, Knight of the Order of Alcántara, military officer, and gentleman of the bedchamber, served as Governor of
the Philippines from 1 Sep 1793 until 7 Aug 1806. He probably had wartime service.
*Juan de Aguirre (1729 - ). Entered service 1741, Captain, Comp Vet Inf, Malabares, 1796 and 1801, Legajo 7268:III:38.
*Marcos Aguirre. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Francisco Alegria (1755 Mifanoas, Provincia de Alaba - ), single in 1788, entered service 1775, was Lt by 1776. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:68.
*Francisco Alvarez Castro. Pilot for the Aránzazu on its voyage from Manila to San Blas, 1781.
*Vicente Alvarez. , Lt, 2d Comp, 1779, Capt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:27,v.
*Domingo Amador. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Miguel del Amo (1842 Burgo de Osma, Castilla la Vieja - ), single in 1788, entered service in 1762, Adjutant in 1779 and 1788. Adjutant and Capt Grad, Escuadrón de Dragones de Luzón, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:638.
*Mariano Anejas. 1st Cpl 3rd Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:34.
*Pascual de los Angeles. Soldier, 2d Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:330.
*Joaquin Angulo (1755 Manila - ), married by 1788, entered service 1771, Lt in 1782, Lt of Grenadiers in 1796. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:76.
*Felipe Antonio. Lt, 8th Comp, 1779, Capt, 1800, Bn del Real Príncipe, Legajo 7268:III:28.
*Miguel Antonio. Lt of Grenadiers, 1779, Capt, 1800, Bn del Real Príncipe, Legajo 7268:III:28.
*Martin de Aranda (1745 Viscaya, Spain - ), entered service 1759, Capt in 1782, single. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:IV:204.
*Manuel Arce/Arze (1762 Peru - ), SubLt in 1780, married by 1788. Adjutant Major, Capt Grad, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:78.
*José de Arcega/Arzega (1732/33 Pueblo Malinao, Province of Albay, Nueva Caseres, Filipinas - ), Capt and Adjutant Major in 1776, Capt, Vets of Malavares, 1795, Sgt Major Plaza Cavite, 1798, Legajo 7268:IV:342.
*Francisco Antonio Arias. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 either on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Joseph Arias (1748 Valladolid, New Spain - ). Sgt in 1779, SubLt in 1788, single, Inf del Rey. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1794, Legajo 7268:VIII:743.
*José Arlegui y Leoz (1741/42 Puello in Navarra - ), entered service 1761, Comandante, Proprietario, 1780, married and a Lt Col Grad and Comandante, Dragones de Luzón, 1788, widowed in 1800. Col, Grad, Escuadrón Dragones de Luzón, 1800, Legajo 7268:II:25.
*Francisco Arnedo y Antillán (1755 Villa Arneda, Rioja - ), entered service 1770, SubLt in 1782, Dragones Pavia, married. Capt, Escuadrón de Dragones de Luzón, 1800, Legajo 7268:II:9.
*José Arriola (1751 Manila - ), entered service 1760, Lt in 1780 and married by 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey in 1796 and Inf del Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:73.
*Manuel de Arze (1762 Lima, Peru - ). Entered service 1780, Adjutant Major, Inf del Rey 1796, prior service included Reyno de Nueva España.
*José de Arzega (1732 - ). Entered service 1749, Capt, Vets of Malabares, 1795, Legajo ??????
*Juan Manuel de Ayala. Thurman:243, ship commander who took the San Carlos to Manila 10 Oct 1779 and returned with the Aránzazu, 1780.

*Ignacio Vicente Barrera. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*José de Basco y Vargas (born in Granada – after Nov 1787). Cardenas:123, wartime Governor in the Philippines. Fernandez:113, Naval officer, Governor from Jul 1778 until Nov 1787, appointed rear-admiral, Governor of Cartgena, and Count of the Conquest of the Batanes Islands.
*Antonio Bausa/Gausa. Serra: San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Félix Bayot (1765 Ceuta - ), SubLt by 1778 and single in 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:548.
*Francisco Bayot (1758 Barcelona - ), Lt in 1779, married by 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:69.
*José Bayot (1768 Mexico City - ), Cadet in Apr 1783, single and SubLt in 1788. SubLt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:92.
*Juan Bayot (1727 Aragon - ), entered service in 1744, Col, Grad in 1781, marriage status may be widower in 1788. Col and Brigadier, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:61.
*Juan Antonio Bayot (1763 Barcelona - ), SubLt in 1778, single and Lt in 1778. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:79.
*Guillermo Beltran. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Josef Francisco Beltran. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Félix Berenguer de Marquina. Fernandez:114, Naval officer who must have had wartime service, served as Governor, 1788-1793.
*José Bernard (1748 - ). Began service in 1769, SubLt, Real Cuerpo de Arty, Plaza de Manila, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:661.
*Visente Blanco (1748 Ciudad de Leon - ). Lt in 1779 and married Lt by 1788, Inf del Rey. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:71.-
*Juan Francisco Bolanos. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Basilio Brito. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Mariano Francisco Buenaventura. Serra:San Carlos mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Juan Antonio Bueno. Serra:San Carlos, married mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Lorenzo Burgos (1748 Veracruz - ), Capt in 1780 and single in 1788, Inf del Rey. Sgt Major, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:63.
*José Bustamente (1735 Mexico, New Spain - ), SubLt in 1779 and married by 1788, Escuadrón Dragones de Luzón. Lt, Grad, Dragones de Luzón, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:II:12.

*José Camacho. In 1779, pilot for the Princesa. It is possible he also made trips to the Philippines.
*Fernando Campuzano. Serra: San Carlos, in Jul 1783 master carpenter for the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Antonio Candulla. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Manuel Cano (1756 Mexico, New Spain - ), Sgt, Oct 1783, and single Sgt, 1788, Dragones de Luzón. Sgt, 1791, Dragones de Luzón, Legajo 7268:X:1071.
*Salvador Canseco. 2d Sgt, 2d Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:33.
*Alexandro Carballo (1735 Manila - ), entered service 1757, Capt in 1776, married Capt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:64.
*José Carballo (1768 Manila - ), entered service 1782/83, Cadet in 1782, single SubLt in 1788, Inf del Rey. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:69.
*Cosmo Cárdena. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*José Anastacio Cárdenas. Serra: San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Felipino).
*Juan Casamara (1750 Puerto Real de Andalucia - ), Adjutant in 1779, married Capt in 1788, Inf del Rey. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1799, Legajo 7268:V:384.
*Ambrosio Casas/Casasas. Capt, 8th Comp, 1779, Capt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:270.
*Joachín del Castillo (1748 Extremadura - ), entered service 1762, Lt in 1782, single Adjutant in 1788, Inf del Rey. Adjutant Major, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:77.
*Raimundo de Castro (1758 Isla Ibisa, Mayorca - ), entered service 1767, 1st Sgt in 1780, married SubLt in 1788, Inf del Rey. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:II:85.
*Phelipe/Felipe Cerain (1743 Maesta, Provincia de Alaba - ), Lt Col, Grad, 1782, and married Capt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1089.
*Ygnacio Cerezo/Serezo (1766 Mexico, New Spain - ), soldier in 1780, married 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788, Legajo7268:XI:1156.
*Miguel Choneayava/Choncamava. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Diego Choquet de Islas. Cutter:116, Thurman:243, ship commander who took the Príncipe to Manila on 18 Dec 1779, carrying 150,000 pesos in hard cash to support the Philippines.
*Bernardino Chrisanto. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Miguel Ciriaco. Soldier, 4th Comp, 1779, SubLt, Bn de Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:32.
*Luis de la Concha (1758 Puerto Real, Andalucia - ), Lt of Frigate in 1782 in the Navy. Governor, Castellano de la Plaza de Cavite, 1794-1799, Legajo 7268:IV:341.
*José Cordero (1755 - ). Entered service 1776, 1st Cpl, 1780, Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:115.
*Carlos Cornely (1753 Croswell, Ireland - ), Capt in 1780, single Capt in 1788, Dragones de Luzón. This may be Carlos Connely, Capt, Grad Col, Dragones de España, 1800, Legajo 7272:III:4.
*Alonso Corrales (1758 Villa de la Fuente del Sahuco, Castilla la Vieja - ). Entered service in 1769, SubLt in 1780, when he came to the Philippines in a picket of 100 men from Mexico, married SubLt Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:83.
*Antonio de la Cruz. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino). There had been a Juan Antonio de la Cruz in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Ignacio de la Cruz. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*José de la Cruz. Caulker for the Aránzazu for its voyage from Manila to San Blas, 1780-81.
*Juan Bernardo de la Cruz. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Pascuál de la Cruz. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on either the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Pedro de Cruz. 1st Cpl, 6th Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:33.
*Ventura de la Cruz (1753 Puerto Cavite, Philippines - ), soldier and Cpl in 1772, married Sgt, 1st Cl, Inf del Rey 1788. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1793, Legajo 7268:IX:898.
*Vizente de la Cruz. SubLt of Banderas in 1779, Lt in 1800, Bn del Real Príncipe, Legajo 7268:III:29.
*Pedro Czaxmote. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in July 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).

*José David (1738 Manila - ), Capt in 1776, married Capt, Inf del Rey, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1093.
*Joaquín Delitala (1747 Almunia, Aragon - ), volunteer at Gibraltar with 3r Comp, Tapadores, 1782-83, single Lt, Dragones, Luzón, 1788, Legajo 7268:II:1199.
*Jaime Denis (1738 Elne, Rosillon - ), entered service 1766, Adjutant Major in 1781, Arty of Manila, in 1795 and 1796 Capt of Arty, single, Legajo 7268:VI:656.
*Juan Diego. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Serafin de Diós. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Andrés Duarte. Cadet, 1782, Bn del Real Príncipe, SubLt, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:32.
*Juan Duran (1748 Alora de Andalucia - ), Capt in 1771, married Capt, Inf del Rey, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1091.
*Juan Agustín Echevarria. Pilot for the Principe for its 1779 voyage to Manila.
*José Escamilla (1742 San Pedro Tecualtichi, New Spain - ), soldier and Cpl in 1780, married Sgt 1st Cl Inf del Rey, 1788. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1797, 1st Sgt, Plaza Manila, 1799, Legajo 7268:IV:340.
*Raimundo Español (1741 Venazque en Aragon - ), entered service 1762, Capt of Grenadiers in 1782, married Sgt Major, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt Col, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:62.
*Cristóbal Espinola. Co-pilot for the Príncipe for its 1779 voyage to Manila.
*Vicente Estacio (1751 Manila - ), entered service in 1771, Lt in 1779, married Lt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:70.
*Pedro Estanisalo. Soldier, 4th Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:34.
*José Tomás Estrada/Estrella. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in July/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita. This may be Thomas de Estrada, Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).

*Marcos Faustino. SubLt, Grenadiers, 1779, Capt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:29.
Mariano Fernandez de Folgueras (born in Galicia - assassinated in 1823 during an insurrection, Philippines). Fernandez:114, King’s deputy who took over as interim governor from the dying Rafael María de Aguilar y Ponce on 7 Aug 1806 and served until 4 Mar 1810. He possibly had
wartime service. He became interim governor a second time 10 Dec 1816 and served until 30 Oct 1822.
*Ramon Fernandez (1737 Borja, Aragon - ), entered service 1759, Lt in 1779, Married Lt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788, Capt Grad, 1796. Capt, Escuadrón de Dragones de Luzón, 1799, Legajo 7268:V:484.
*Estaquio Fernando. 2d Sgt, 5th Comp, 1779, Bn del Real Príncipe, Sgt, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:33.
*José Francisco Flóres. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Martín Flóres. (1753 Murcia - ), entered service 1764, SubLt in 1780 when he came in a picket of 100 men to defend the City of Manila, single Lt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, 1796 and 1799, Inf del Rey, Legajo 7268:V:399.
*Ignacio Francisco. Serra: San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Juan Francisco Fuentes. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).

*Juan Gallardo. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Antonio Galvan (1742 Alburquerque - ), Lt in 1774, Naval Artillery, Capt of Arty, Manila Arty, 1795, married. Capt, Real Cuerpo Arty, Plaza de Manila, 1796, Legajo 7268:VII:679.
*Juan Garcia. Surgeon in 1779 on the Princesa.
*Fray Juan Antonio Garcia Riobó. Chaplain in 1779 on the Princesa.
*Juan José García. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Antonio Garduño (1741 Malacatepec - ), 2d Sgt in 1774, married 1st Sgt in 1788, Inf del Rey. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1791, Legajo 7268:X:1024.
*Francisco Gómez. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Josef Gómez. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*José González. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*José/Juan González. Cardenas:122, moved in 1779-81 to the Philippines and returned in 1782 in the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Joseph González (1733/355 Villagruse en Asturias - ), Capt in 1763, married, Capt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Capt of Grenadiers, Plaza Manila, 1799, Legajo 7268:IV:338.
*Joseph Eusebio González. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Juan Matías González. Surgeon from San Blas to Alta CA in 1782 on the Princesa.
*Manuel Gonzales (??? Pantoña en las Montañas de Burgos - ), Sgt in 1780, married SubLt, Escuadron Dragones de Luzón, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1190.
*Felipe Guevara (1752 Manila - ), entered service 1770, Lt in 1781, married Lt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:75.
*Ignacio Guevara (1759 Mexico - ), entered service in 1780. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1794, married, Legajo 7268:VIII:788.
*Philipe de Guevara. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Alejandro Gusta (1737 Barcelona, Chathaluña - ), entered service 1765, Lt in 1769, single Lt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788. Capt, Escuadrón de Dragones de Luzón, 1800, Legajo 7268:II:10.

*Santiago Hac. Capt, Comp Vet Inf de Malabares, 1791, Legajo 7268:X:1081.
*Antonio Hermenegildo. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Manuel Hermosilla (1768 Galicia - ), Distinguished Soldier, 1778, Andalucia Regt, single SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:90.
*Narciso Herraes (1735 Ceuta, Castilla la Nueva - ), SubLt in 1780, single Lt, Inf del Rey, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1115.
*Bruno de Hezeta. Cardenas: many references, ship commander who took the Princesa to the Philippines in 1780.
*Remigio Ibañes (1744 pueblo Hermita - ), mestizo/Spanish, entered service 1768, 2d Sgt in 1776, Manila Arty, SubLt, 1st Comp, Manila Arty, 1795, single, Lt, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:659.
*Juan Francisco de Inote. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita. b. Cadet, 1779, Bn del Real Príncipe, Lt, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:29v.
*Andrés Ximénez/Jiménez (1733 Alcala, los Gazules - ), Adjutant in 1779, Adjutant, grad Lt, King’s Fort at Santiago, 1799, single, Legajo 7268:IV:336.
*Francisco Jiménez/Ximénez (1731 Alcala Gazules - ), Lt in 1775, Arty Minadores. Capt, Real Cuerpo de Arty de la Plaza de Manila, 1796, single, Legajo 7268:VI:657.
*José Jordan (1755 Queretaro, New Spain - ), entered service 1775, soldier and Cpl in 1777 with Dragones de España in New Spain, single Sgt, Dragones, Luzón, 1788. Sgt, Esquadrón de Dragones de Luzón, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:II:18.
*Salvador José. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Mateo Juason. SubLt, 6th Comp, 1779, Lt, Milicias Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:29,v,o.
*Vicente Dolores Juason. Capt, 7th Comp, 1779, Lt Col, Milicias del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:27.
*Francisco Julian. SubLt, 4th Comp, 1779, Capt, Milicias del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:28.
*Pedro Julián. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Antonio Jurado (1752 Manila - ), entered service in 1770, 2d Sgt in 1780 in Manila Arty. Lt, Real Cuerpo Arty, Plaza de Manila. 1796, married, Legajo 7268:VI:658.
*José Jurado y Padilla (1749 - ), entered service Aug 1783, 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1799, Legajo 7268:V:436.

*Martin Lagasca (1758 Manila - ), entered service 1774, 2d Sgt in 1781, married 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788, 1796, 1800, Inf del Rey, Legajo 7268:III:114.
*José Larios (1761 la Puebla, New Spain - ), entered service 1778, 2d Sgt, 1780, married 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1791, SubLt, 1796, Legajo 7268:X:1026.
*José Lastarria (1770 Manila - ), Cadet in August, 1783 in Dragones de Luzón, single SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1788. SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:565.
*Antonio Ledesme. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Manuel de Legazpi. Soldier, Cazadores/Rangers, 1779, SubLt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:31.
*Mariano de Legazpi. 2d Sgt, 5th Comp, 1779, Lt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:29.
*Joaquin Lima (1761 - ), entered service 1778, 1st sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:32.
*Jaime Linart (1748 Calvia - ), entered service 1770, 2d Sgt, 1772, single SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:87.
*Joseph Lisola (1760 Guadalaxara, New Spain - ), soldier and Cpl 1779, Inf del Corona, New Spain, single 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788. SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:107.
*José Longoria (1755 San Luís Potosí, New Spain - ), entered service in 1768, SubLt in 1780 when he came in a picket of 100 men to defend the City of Manila, single SubLt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:82.
Gregorio Lopez (1764 Manila - ), service began in Oct 1783 as a soldier in Inf del Rey, Asia, before news of war ending reached Manila. 1st Sgt, Comp Vet de Inf, Malavares, 1796 and 1801, Legajo 7268:III:41.
*Joaquín Lopez. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*José López Perea/Perca (1753 Manila - ), entered service 1771, Sgt in 1782, married with Filipina. Sgt in Dragones de Luzón, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1794, Legajo 7268:VIII:741 as José López.
*Juan Lopez. Carpenter for the Aránzazu for its voyage from Manila to San Blas, 1781.
*Juan Lopez de Narváez. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
Juan Lozada. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:IV:263.
*Luis de Luna (1743 Mexico City - ), Lt in 1781, married Lt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1791, Legajo 7268:X:976.

*Domingo Macaro. 2d Sgt of Grenadiers, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1779, Lt, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:30.
*Juan Antonio Machuca. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Vizente Matheos. Cadet, 1782 Bn del Real Príncipe, Lt, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:30.
José Mariano. Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1798, Legajo 7268:V:517. (Because of missing folios, we were unable to determine his initial date of service.)
*Estevan José Martínez. Serra:San Carlos, in 1782 commanded the Princesa from San Blas to Alta CA and in Jul 1783 the San Carlos (El Filipino) from San Blas to Monterey and San Francisco.
*Manuel Martinez (1749 Mexico City - ), 2d Sgt in 1780, married 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1151.
*Pedro Masdeu (1735 Melilla - ), Capt, grad Lt Col, Manila Arty, 1781. Col, Real Cuerpo Arty, Plaza de Manila, 1795, married, Legajo 7268:VII:678.
*Félix Mantanza. 2d Cpl, 1st Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:33.
Luis Mateo. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1794, Legajo 7268:VIII:782.
*Ramón Melendez (1748 Ceuta - ), Cadet in 1779, single SubLt in 1788 in Inf del Rey. SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1791, Legajo 7268:X:1000.
*Manuel Mendoza (1756 Manila - ), entered service in 1773, Sgt in 1778, married SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:84.
*Antonio Mercado (1754 Montefrio, Granada - ), entered service 1763, SubLt in 1782, married SubLt, 1788, Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:554.
*Joseph Meu. Serra:San Carlos, pilot in Jul/Aug 1782 for the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Nicolás Mijares (1760 Manila - ), entered service 1778, SubLt in 1780, Dragones de Luzón, single SubLt in 1788 and 1796. SubLt and grad Lt, Dragones de Luzón, 1800, married, Legajo 7268:II:13.
*Ramón Mijares (1752 - ). Entered service 1771, Lt of Grenadiers, 1779, Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:67.
*Fernando de Mir (1751 Granolles, Chataluña - ), Distinguished Soldier and Cpl in 1769 in Infantry in Africa, single Portaguion, Dragones de Luzón, 1788. SubLt, Escuadrón de Dragones de Luzón, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:II:14.
*Francisco de Mir (1746 Granolles, Cathaluña - ), entered service 1765, Lt in 1772, married Lt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788. Capt, grad, Escuadrón de Dragones de Luzón, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:II:11.
*Juan de Mir (1732 Micante, Valencia - ), Capt in 1769, married Capt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788. Lt Col, grad, Escuadrón Dragones de Luzón, 1795, Legajo 7268:VII:689.
*Antonio Mora (1754 Xeres de la Frontera - ), soldier and Cpl in 1781, married 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1162.
*José Morales (1757 Mexico, New Spain - ), soldier and Cpl, 1780, single Sgt, 1788, Dragones de Luzón. Sgt, Escuadrón Dragones de Luzón, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:II:19.
*Juan Morando. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Alonzo Moreño. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 for the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Diego Moreño (1750 Puerto Real, Andalucia - ), entered service 1772, Lt in 1779, single Lt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:74.
*Blas Morillo (1753 Cartagena - ), entered service 1769, SubLt in 1780, married Lt Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:81.
*Diego Mosteirin (1732 - ), entered service 1754, Col and Commandant, Arty Filipinas, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:655.
*Francisco Mourelle de la Rua. Cárdenas:112, Thurman:245, naval Ensign who commanded the Princesa on its 15 March 1780 voyage to the Philippines, and he commanded it on the return trip to San Blas in 1781.
*José Manuel Munguía. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Francisco Muñoz y San Clemente (1755 Pamplona, Navarra - ), Lt of the Navy, 1779, Capt of Frigate, 1782, Caballero de la Orden de Calatrava. Lt del Rey, Cabo Subalterno, de las Islas Filipinas, 1799, married, Legajo 7268:IV:337.

*Fulgencio Naguiat (1746 Manila - ), 1st Sgt, 1788, married 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1794, Legajo 7268:VIII:773.
*Jacinto Navarro. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Loreano Noriega (1766 Manila - ), Arty Cadet in 1779, single SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:88.
*Damian Novales (1761 Castilla la Vieja - ), entered service 1780, Lt in 1780, single Lt in Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:72.
*Tomás Núñez Danfi y Parrila (1760 Cadiz, Andalucia - ), Cadet, 1778, Inf Savoya and later served at Gibraltar, 1st Adjutant, Plaza Manila, 1799, married, Legajo 7268:IV:339
*Juan Francisco de Ochea. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Manuel Ortega (1756, Puebla of Los Angeles, New Spain (now Mexico) - ), soldier in 1778, Dragoons of New Spain, Sgt, Dragoons of Luzón, 1800, married, Legajo 7268:II:20.
*Gregorio Ortiz (1755 Cagayan, Philippines - ), entered service 1773, 2d Sgt, 1781, married 1st Sgt, 1788, Inf del Rey. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:587.
*Martín Ortiz (1747 Nueva Segovia, Philippines - ), entered service 1772, 1st Sgt in 1781, married 1st Sgt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1788. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:113.
*Juan Pantoja y Arriaga. Serra:San Carlos, second pilot in 1779 for the Princesa and pilot in Jul 1783 for the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Andrés Isidro Parada. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Gregorio Pardo (1756 - ), entered service 1772, Lt, Real Cuerpo Arty Plaza de Manila, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:660.
*José Pardo (1754 Mexico City - ), soldier in 1782, Cpl in 1783, single 1st Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1788. SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:97.
*Juan Francisco Pastor (1769 Madrid - ), Cadet in 1777, Dragones del Rey, single Cadet, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:86.
*Francisco Patiño (1741 Galicia - ), Lt in 1776, Lt Col, grad and Governor of the King’s Fort at Santiago, 21 Aug 1799, single, Legajo 7268:IV:335.
*Manuel de la Peña. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1794, Legajo 7268:VIII:723.
*Gregorio Perea. 2d Sgt, 3rd Comp, 1779, Lt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:30,v.
*Diego Peña/Pons. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Luís Antonio de la Peña. Serra: San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Sebastián Perez (1736 Cadiz, Andalucia - ), 2d Adjutant in 1780, single, Ayudante Mayor de la Plaza de Cavite, 1798, Legajo 7268:IV:343.
*Nicolás Pimpin/Pinpin (1751 - ), entered service 1770, 1st Sgt, 1778, SubLt de Banderas, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:110.
*Andrés del Pino (1738 Manila - ), entered service 1763, 1st Sgt in 1772, married 1st Sgt Inf del Rey, 1788. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:585.
*Joseph Pinto (1752 Mexico, New Spain - ), entered service 1761, SubLt in 1780, single Lt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:80.
*Thomas Poliquet (1738 Burgos - ), entered service 1754, Lt in 1771, single Capt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1799, Legajo 7268:V:385.
*Alexandro Pusta (1737 Barcelona, Cataluña - ), Lt in 1769, Dragoons of Spain, Capt, Dragoons of Luzón, 1800, Legajo 7268.
*José Ricardo Quintero. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Fernando Quirós y Miranda. Cutter:116, second officer in 1779 on the Princesa.

*Agustín Ramirez (1748 Manila - ), entered service 1764, Capt, 1782, married Capt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:66.
*José Ramírez. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Juan Bernardo Ramírez. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*José Ramos. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Pedro Ramos. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Gregorio de los Reyes. Colonel, 1779, and 1800, Bn del Real Príncipe, Legajo 7268:III:27.
*Vicente Rios (1738 Manila - ), Capt in 1777, married Capt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1799, Legajo 7268:V:379.
*José de Rivera (1756 - ). Entered service 1774, but he received 10 years credit for apprehending 5 deserters in 1773. SubLt, Real Cuerpo Arty de la Plaza de Manila, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:662.
*Lorenzo Rivera (1743 Manila - ), entered service 1763, Capt in 1777, married Capt in Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:65.
*José Rodríguez (1744 Mexico, New Spain - ), soldier and Cpl, 1767, Dragones of España in New Spain, Sgt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1194.
*Félix de la Rosa. SubLt, 1st Comp, 1779, Capt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:28.
*Isidro Rosalio. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Lucas del Rosario (1745 Manila - ), entered service 1766, 1st Sgt in 1771, SubLt, Comp Vet Inf de Malavares, 1795, married, Legajo 7268:VII:672.
*Román del Rosario. Lt, 5th Comp, 1779, Capt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:28.
*Pablo Roy/Roig. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Pedro Roy. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Antonio Rubio y Ambiela/Yambiela (1753 - ). Soldier, 1781, in Zeuta Infantry Garrison, Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796 and 1800, Legajo 7268:III:131.
*Ramon Ruis (1750 Santiponse - ), entered service 1774, 2d Sgt, 1776, single SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Undated note: “En la expedición de la America meridional desembarco y toma de la isla de Santa Cathalina, sitio, y rendición de la placa de la colonia del Sacramento…” Lt, Inf
del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:559.

*Pedro José de Salazar. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*José Saldana (1763, Mexico, New Spain - ), entered service in 1780. Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:592.
*Fray Matías San Catalina y Noriéga. In 1779, chaplain on the Princesa.
*Rafael San Francisco. Lt, began service in 1779, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:V:514.
*Félix de San Luis. 1st Cpl, 1779, Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:122.
*Domingo de los Santos. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Esteban Santos. 2d Sgt, 3rd Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:32,v,o.
*Joaquín de los Santos. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Miguel de los Santos. SubLt, 5th Comp, Bn del Real Príncipe, in 1779, Capt, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:28,v,o.
*José Sanz (1737 Micante, Valencia - ), Capt in 1771, married Capt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788. Capt, Escuadrón Dragones de Luzón, 1791, Legajo 7268:X:1079.
*Pedro de Sarrio/Sariano. Fernandez:113-114, Spanish official in Manila, appointed interim governor, 30 Oct 1776 – Jul 1778, and appointed a second time in Nov 1787 until 1 Jul 1788.
*Segismundo Sartori (1747 Casamayor, Modena, Italy - ), entered service 1775, Sgt in 1779 in Cuerpo de Marina, married SubLt, Inf del Rey, 1788 and 1796. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:91.
*Ignacio Sayson. Cadet, 1779, SubLt, Bn de Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:30,v,o.
*José Gerónimo de Silva. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Luís Silvero de Tapia. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Domingo Silvestre. Soldier, 7th Comp, 1779, Sgt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:33,v.
*Diego Soriano. Cadet in 1779, Lt, Bn de Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:30.
*Fermín Soriano. Cadet in 1779, Lt, Bn del Real Príncipe, Legajo 7268:III:29,v.
Juan Soriano. Lt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1798, Legajo 7268:V:513. (We were unable to determine his initial date of service, but it was probably before 1783.)
*Pedro Soriano. 2d Sgt of Cazadors/Rangers, 1779, Lt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:30,v,o.
*José Suarez (1734 Oviedo, Castilla - ), soldier and Cpl in 1782, Inf del Rey, Asia, SubLt, Comp Vet Inf de Malavares, 1796, single, Legajo 7268:VI:667.

*Vicente Tallado. Serra:San Carlos, mariner from de la Panpangua, Filipinas, confirmed 10 Aug 1779.
*Juan Talavera (1737 Casas de Vez, Murcia - ), SubLt in 1780, single SubLt, Grad Lt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788. (This may be the person who was in 1790, SubLt, Dragones de España, in Mexico.)
*Teodoro Tianco. Capt, 7th Comp, 1779, Capt, Bn del Real Príncipe, 1800, Legajo 7268:III:27,v.
*Mariano Tobias. Lt Col, Inf del Rey, 1791, Legajo 7268:X:955.
*José Apolinar Torralba (??? Manila - ), soldier and Cpl in 1777, maried Sgt, Dragones de Luzón, 1788, Legajo 7268:XI:1195.
*Lorenzo de Torres (1747 Toscana - ), SubLt in 1779, married Lt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Lt, Inf del Rey, 1791, Legajo 7268:X:980.
*Manuel de Torres. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Josef Tovar y Tamariz. Serra:San Carlos, pilot, Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*Antonio Vallejo (1760 Puerto Santa María - ), service in Cav. Monteza prior to 1786, Adjutant of Manila Arty, 1795, married. 1st Sgt, 2d Comp, Real Cuerpo Arty, Plaza de Manila, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:663.
*Antonio Valls. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Celedonio Varran. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul/Aug 1782 on the Princesa or the Favorita.
*José Antonio Vasquez. Thurman:245, naval pilot in the Princessa on its 1779-80 voyage to the Philippines and on its return in 1781.
*Josef Velez de Vallé. Serra:San Carlos, mariner in Jul 1783 on the San Carlos (El Filipino).
*Juan Verdier (1759 Cataluña - ), in Cataluña Inf prior to 1787, Adjutant of Arty, Manila Arty, 1795, married. 1st Sgt, 1st Comp, Real Cuerpo Arty, Plaza de Manila, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:664.
*Juan Victorino (1756 - ). Entered service Dec 1779, Sgt, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:597.
*Manuel Zendejas (1745 Valladolid, New Spain - ), 1st Sgt in 1779, married 1st Sgt of Grenadiers, Inf del Rey, 1788. Sgt de Granaderos, Inf del Rey, 1794, Legajo 7268:VIII:774.
*Filomeno Zendrera (1746 Sevilla - ), entered service 1768, Capt in 1780, married Capt, Inf del Rey, 1788. Capt of Granaderos, Inf del Rey, 1796, Legajo 7268:VI:530.

References:

Cárdenas:page. Enrique Cárdenas de la Peña, San Blas de Nayarit, vols 1 and 2, Mexico, D. F., Secretaria de Marina, 1968.

Cutter:page. Donald C. Cutter, “California Training Ground for Spanish Naval Heroes,” California Historical Society Quarterly, Vol XI#2, (June 1961):109-123.

Fernandez:page. Alejandro M. Fernandez, The Spanish Governor-General in the Philippines, University of the Philippines Law Center, Quezon City, 1971. Library call number JQ.1261.F392s.

Legajo*:section:page. Catalogo XXII del Archivo de Simancas, entitled Secretaria de Guerra (Siglo XVIII) Hojas de Servicios de America, published in 1958 at Valladolid, Spain, with index in Spanish by Ricardo Magdaleno, lists many who served during Spain’s 1779-1783 War with
England and who stayed in service after the war. Those who were later in the Philippines are listed in Legajo 7268. All those shown below with an asterisk are confirmed to have served during wartime.

Serra:California mission. Fray Junípero Serra was able to perform confirmations, and visitors from San Blas or from the Philippines on missions to Alta CA took advantage of the opportunity. Most
confirmations were at Fray Serra’s home church at San Carlos, but some events such as marriages and baptisms took place at San Francisco and Santa Clara and were witnessed by maritime visitors. LDS Microfilm #0944282 with translations by Thomas Workman Temple, II, and Marie Northrop, is thus a source of information on mariners from San Blas in 1779, 1782, and 1783, and indirectly from those who also served in the Philippines.

Thurman:page. Michael E. Thurman, The Naval Department of San Blas: New Spain’s Bastion for Alta California and Nootka, 1767-1798, Glendale, CA, The Arthur H. Clark Company, 1967.

Website http://www.personal.anderson.ucla.edu/eloisa.borah/filfaqs.htm
includes considerable information on Filipinos in America Pre-1898.

(Submitted by Granville W. Hough, email gwhough@earthlink.net , who will be glad to assist any descendant of these Patriots who wishes to apply for membership in the National Society, Sons of the American Revolution.)

United States -- 3 Orange County, CA -- 16 Los Angeles, CA -- 18 California -- 21 Northwestern US -- 29 Southwestern US -- 31 Black -- 36 Indigenous -- 37 Texas -- 58 East of Mississippi -- 64 East Coast -- 66 Mexico -- 67 Caribbean/Cuba -- 80 International -- 81 History -- 81 Miscellaneous --10 2002 Index Community Calendars Networking	RESEARCHING SEPHARDIC GENEALOGY The Society of Hispanic Historical and Ancestral Research participated in a New York event last year sponsored by the Sephardic House. Also participating were The Puerto Rican/Hispanic Genealogical Society, Inc., Jewish Genealogical Society, Inc. and the Office of Cultural Affairs, Consulate of Israel in New York. With the world situation focused on the turmoil in the Middle-East, Hispanic researchers are searching for an understanding of the Jewish roots that many find in their family lines.
		Back L-R Debate Miguel Hernandez Estelle Guzik Lucille Gudis Seated were the panelists: Randall C. Belinfante Nan Rubin Michael A. Salinas

ORANGE COUNTY, CA
SHHAR Quarterly Meeting, March 23 History Day, March 23 San Ignacio Lagoon, March 10	Carisma, Art of the Americas is Moving Fernando and Olga Niebla Essay Contest

LOS ANGELES, CA
Southwest Oral History Association Zoot Suit Riots Diego Rivera Architect Returns Home to Aliso Village	Edward Zapanta, Ph.D. Henry Escalante Statewide Mobilization Forum

CALIFORNIA
Juana Briones 200th Birthday Angelina E. Marquez Olivera Tet Celebrated with a Latin Touch 24-hour Vietnamese TV channel Lost Island Found Wall Carving Gaspar de Portola Historical Society of Pomona California Rancho Maps Step into California History	California Counties Local Catholic History & Genealogy My Story is California's Story Statewide Mobilization San Francisco Museum California Obituary Links California Genealogy Databases Santa Clara County Recorder's Office Harry W. Crosby, Historian, Author, Lecturer Museum honors Hispanics

NORTHWESTERN UNITED STATES
Latino Population in Utah Jumps Plans for Hispanic Center Changed	Emma Sepulveda

SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES
Cowboy Poetry Ted Otero Collection Desert Museum Scholes Spanish Documents Collection Los Cerrillos Mining Area	New Mexico Online Articles NARA Center for Electronic Records Museum of Spanish Colonial Art The Spanish Years, 1767-1821 Colonias of Doña Ana County,

TEXAS
Digital Presentation in an Uncertain Future Mujerfest 2002 Corpus Christi Commemoration of Mexican-American War Luis Antonio Franco	Gloria Candelaria Catholic Archives of Texas (Austin) 1850 U.S. Federal Census Republic of Texas, 1835-1845, Military Rolls Description of Manuscript Collections-Herrera Catholic Archives of Texas,

EAST OF THE MISSISSIPPI
Georgia's Growing Ethnic Groups Libraries short on books for Hispanics	Confederate Soldiers and Sailors in Louisiana Opelousas Militia in the 1770's - 1780's Cajun Immigration to Louisiana

MEXICO
Volkswagen Plans Expansion Borderland Projects Ahead Mexico City to be Restored Mexico Ends Free Land Practice Genealogy & Directory Resources Mexico Research Groups with Links Brief biography for Mexican historical leaders Journey of Family Discovery-Jalisco, Michoacan Zacatecas Archives of Juchipila Pre-Hispanic 'Pelota' Survives The Genealogy of Mexico	Veinte Mil Escrituras Notariales Coloniales Records of El Potosí Mining Company Survey of Mexican Inquisition Documents Mexico Research Guide Zacatecas Historical Records Mexican History Microforms Spanish-American Manuscripts Historical Water Archive in Mexico History of Mexico Fotos de Tijuana Puertos

CARIBBEAN/CUBA
Hispanic Genealogical Society of New York, Inc. Rodríguez de Puerto Rico Forum	Genealogical Research in Puerto Rico

INTERNATIONAL
Franciscan friars replace the traditional robe NOVICA Burgos Province Birth Records Basque Genealogy Homepage H-LatAm International Civic Heraldry Spanish Research E-libro.net Latino American Links Grijalva Surname	Researching in Spain Inter-nation Migration to Latin America Internet y la Historia de España Spanish Presidios Anillo de Genealogía Hispana Mythical Spanish Past: Spanish Resources World Wide Genealogical Resources SPANISH PATRIOTS OF THE PHILIPPINES IN SPAIN’S 1779-1783 WAR WITH ENGLAND

HISTORY
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo The First Civil War, 1830-1842	Prisoners in the Spanish American War War for Survival San Francisco Daily Morning Call Newspaper:

Local Catholic History & Genealogy: California, Hawaii, Nevada, & Utah

Links to History Resources presented by the Department of History Univ. of California, Riverside